Everyone can Improvise: Pedagogical Approaches to Music Improvisation in Early Childhood Education

I. Organ of love, II. Organ of fertility, III. Organ of inhabitiveness, IV. Connecting organ, V. Organ of combativeness, VI. Organ of destructiveness, VII. Organ of secrecy, VIII. Organ of Greed, IX. Organ of Constructivism, X. Organ of self-esteem, XI. Organ of love approval, XII. Organ of cautiousness, XIII. Organ of benevolence, XIV. Organ of Worship, XV. Organ of firmness, XVI. Organ of conscientiousness, XVII. Organ of Hope, XVIII. Organ of magnificence, XIX. Organ of ideality, XX. Organ of Joy XXI. Organ of imitation, XXII. Organ of individuality, XXIII. Organ of configuration, XXIV. Organ size, XXV. Organ of weight and resistance, XXVI. Organ of coloring, XXVII. Organ of locality, XXVIII. Calculation organ, XXIX. Organ of order, XXX. Organ of possibilities, XXXI. Organ of time, XXXII. Organ of melody, XXXIII. Organ of language, XXXIV. Organ of comparison, XXXV. Organ of causality 

We can certainly say that the brain is an organ whose every part plays an unimaginable role when it comes to learning and teaching. Earlier research abounds in analyses of the functioning of the left and right hemisphere of the brain (Rubenzer, 1981; Hoppe, 1988; Restak, 1993; Dubovicki, 2013; 2016), which are often critically questioned (Topolovčan, 2023). The development of brain research in the terms of observing learning styles as important factors in adapting the educational process and enabling its maximum development (Messick, 1976; Keefe, 1982; Holt, 1983; Maras et al., 2018), conclude on the connection between intellectual abilities and cognitive, affective and physiological learning styles (Sunko, 2008). Taking in consideration the different attitudes, behaviors and the specific characteristics with which each individual approaches learning, the following learning styles have been recognized: activist, reflector, theorist and pragmatist (Figure 2).

Figure 2.

Experiential learning cycle (Vizek Vidović & Vlahović Štetić, 2007, according to Kolb, 1984) and learning styles (Vizek Vidović & Vlahović Štetić, 2007, according to Kolb, AY and Kolb, DA, 2005; according to Honey and Mumford, 1992)

In Figure 2, we can see the separation of four types of people with regard to their characteristics and learning method, which resulted from sociological, emotional and psychological characteristics and stimulating incentives, i.e. environmental conditions. In addition to the differentgrowing needsresearch andinterest in the characteristics of eachgroup individual,improvisation with children, creativity and collaboration have been identified as key characteristics, even at a young age (Sawyer, 2003, 2007; Wassrin, 2019). Johansen et al. (2019) emphasise the learningdistinctiveness styleof isimprovisation alsopedagogy influencedin ECE contexts, highlighting the central role of kindergarten teachers or caregivers in defining what constitutes a musical activity and thus in shaping the modes of expression available to children. This challenge arises in part from a tendency to overlook the power dynamics between children and adults in society, which has led researchers in the field of music education to underestimate how such dynamics might shape the reported actions in children's improvisations (Wassrin, 2019).

 In studies with 9- and 10-year-old children, Larsson and Öhman (2018) and Larsson (2019) found that teachers provided a 'framework' for music making, for example by theasking individualchildren processingto invent a story and express it through improvisation, while encouraging mutual support and avoiding judgement.

The categorisation of information,emergent thatmusical is,features thein wayimprovisation avaries person acquires different content (Vizek Vidović & Vlahović Štetić, 2007; Hatami, 2013). An activist is a person who learns through experience without being burdened with theoretical assumptions and/or prejudices, butdepending on the basispedagogical approach or educational goal. Two general approaches are model-based (Kratus, 1991; Beegle, 2010; Whitcomb, 2010), where teachers follow certain rules and conventions of hisa owngenre perceptionor method, and experience,process-based, hewhere mastersteachers newdesign knowledge. Personal experience and reflection is a feature of the learning style that is characteristic of the reflector. The reflector collects information and draws conclusionsactivities based on thisparticipants' informationcontributions (Burnard, 2002; Kanellopoulos, 2007; Larsson & Öhman, 2018; Larsson, 2019). In addition, a distinction is made between 'structured', teacher-led improvisation and acquires'free', newchild-led knowledgeimprovisation (Gazibara,Larsson and Georgii-Hemming, 2018).

MacGlone theorist(2019) appliesdescribes how conceptual tools and workshop roles are developed through music improvisation with young children. He defines group music improvisation as a deductive styleprocess in awhich systematic approach to everything he does. First, he studies the general theorysome or principles, and then applies it (Vizek Vidović & Vlahović Štetić, 2007). Practical application, i.e. learning through practice, is characteristic of a pragmatist. This is the person who will first directly check whether a theory works and whether it can be usefully applied (Bubnys & Žydžiunaite, 2010). We believe that all of the abovecontent mentionedemerges spontaneously during the performance, with participants actively collaborating and shaping the music in real time. In an action research study of improvisation with preschool children aimed at developing their musical creativity and sensitivity, activities included descriptive prompts (“What does a hedgehog sound like?”, “Are the drums good for rainbow sounds?”), open-ended prompts (“Just play.”) and the use of graphic symbols as a starting point for improvisation. Some situations illustrate a conflict of desire and power within the group and highlight the challenges the children face when they have to reconcile their own needs with those of others due to unresolved power dynamics. The children's ideas were developed into a shared repertoire of improvisations linked to stories such as “Princesses in a Bouncy Castle” and "Star Music”. Musical roles explore how children describe personal and interpersonal actions through their musical choices during improvisation (MacGlone, 2019). To broaden the horizons of musical improvisation pedagogy within structured musical play in the ECE context, two key constructs within ECE are highlighted: Creative Musical Agency (CMA) and Socio-Musical Aptitude (S-MA) (MacGlone, Wilson & MacDonald, 2021). CMA is extremelydemonstrated importantwhen a child independently develops and performs new musical material during a group improvisation, while S-MA is demonstrated when a child develops a musical response during a group improvisation that relates to and references another child's musical idea. By considering these constructs in the context of early childhood musical improvisation, this study aims to investigate how structured and unstructured musical activities promote children's creative and social musical engagement.

Multimodal Approaches to Music Education

Effective teaching involves all modalities, which is particularly possible in music due to its inherently multimodal nature. Considering the musical experience as a multimodal form of communication, music not only includes text, photographs, animations, colours, movements and other sounds that express ideological discourses in society, but also combines different information such as sheet music, gestures, lyrics and metadata (Way & McKerrell, 2017). By understanding and harnessing students' individual modal strengths, music lessons can provide rich sensory stimulation to enhance the overall learning experience (Scott-Kassner &Kassner, 2006).

Musical concepts are most effectively taught through discovery (Bruner, 1966), with activities such as improvisation, composition or musical tasks that encourage children to think while listening, performing or creating thus providing opportunities for exploration. Approaches such as Orff Schulwerk, Kodály, Dalcroze Eurhythmics, Suzuki and the method of Croatian educator Elly Bašić all emphasise the importance of rich musical experiences that lead children to understanding before formal learning begins (Bačlija Sušić, 2017). This approach is based on the idea that experiential learning through play, movement, listening and creativity develops children's sensitivity to music and fosters their creativity (Bačlija Sušić & Brebrić, 2022). Accordingly, their communicative behaviour in creative music workshops has been characterised as multimodal (Wassrin, 2016, 2019).

Children combine actions (such as movement, storytelling and singing) in a way that emphasises the central role of ECE teachers in defining what counts as musical activity, taking into account the different modes of expression available to children (Johansen et al., 2019). In this context, some authors emphasise that the combination of activities such as movement, storytelling and singing can be at odds with ritualised musical activities in a circle, which often require children to remain seated and can be limiting for children with developmental needs or difficulties (Young, 2006; Wassrin, 2019). Appropriate interventions tailored to children's needs by ECE teachers enhance children's musical experiences and reflect the quality of the process through higher levels of children's engagement and well-being (Bačlija Sušić, Fišer Sedinić & Cvrtila, 2022).

In order to support musical creativity in early childhood, adults should reflect on their engagement with children's creative musical play, as understanding this play is key to improving improvisation pedagogy. Leaders of musical activities play a crucial role as facilitators who effectively support and encourage children's creative development (MacGlone, Wilson & MacDonald, 2021). In terms of improvisation and creativity in general, adults often have more opportunities to connect with children through various artistic and multimodal forms of expression, such as storytelling. Therefore, in view of the potential of storytelling as a multidisciplinary tool with great pedagogical value that can be used in university classrooms as well as in early childhood and primary education (Arteaga Checa, Zagalaz Sánchez, & Cepero González, 1999), many authors have emphasised the importance of storytelling through music in teaching and in the development of professional skills (Rodríguez Lorenzo, 2016; Menéndez Valdeolmillos, 2020). Storytelling is always linked to a message, just like music, which in a way conveys a message. In the context of music education, storytelling therefore serves both as a teaching strategy and as a motivational tool (Bačlija Sušić, 2017; Horvat Vukelja & Heisenger, 2019).

Building on Vygotsky's model of mediated action, Activity Theory (AT) provides a framework for understanding how tools, rules and social structures shape human interaction (Engeström, 1987, 2001). In early childhood education, AT helps analyse the multimodal and multisensory nature of music improvisation and offers insights into pedagogical and social dynamics (MacGlone, 2019, 2020, 2022). The framework also explores physical and symbolic tools as mediating artefacts in practice. The use of Activity Theory (AT) in early childhood education settings (McGlone, 2019, 2020, 2022) enhances understanding and interaction, emphasising its multisensory and multimodal nature. As a reflexive tool, AT provides deeper insights into the complexity of the social and organisational practices of music improvisation in ECE.

As for the learninglimited use of musical improvisation as a form of creative musical expression by children in ECE (Bačlija Sušić, 2023), this remains a relatively unexplored area for this age group. The aim of this research is to gain insights into children's creative musical expression and teachingcommunication process,during becausecollaborative improvisation in ECE, emphasising the recognitionmultisensory and multimodal nature of students'improvisation varyingand learningusing stylesActivity Theory (AT) as a reflexive framework to enhance pedagogy. The following research questions were defined in accordance with the research problem and aim

•        1. What are the most common modes and forms of expression and communication in ECE improvisation from a multimodal perspective?

•        2. Which mediating artefacts can helpfacilitate the teacherimprovisation in the preparationECE context by providing guidelines, rules and structure?

Method

Participants

A group of 25 children from a single kindergarten group participated in the study, supervised by two music experts in collaboration with an educational rehabilitation specialist and a kindergarten teacher. The activities were conducted and monitored over a period of 3 months by two music experts in collaboration with a kindergarten educational rehabilitation specialist.

Instrument

In addition to the video-based participant observation, notes were taken alongside the video recordings. A checklist based on the AT framework was developed for the first analysis. A checklist based on the Attribution Theory (AT) framework covering subject, object, rules, division of labour and modes of expression was used to analyse the data. In line with the research aim and research questions, we focused on exploring the role of both physical and symbolic tools as mediating artefacts and the different modes of expression used in improvisation activities with children.

Research Design

ECEC ethnographic methods were used to explore the children's cultures, experiences, feelings, voices and activities in order to promote their development and well-being (Köngäs and Määttä, 20-23). In parallel, arts-based practice - an established research method for working with children (Hickey-Moody 2011, 2013, 2015; Leavy 2015; Thomson 2009) - provided valuable insights into children's lived experiences and their connections to education, community and culture (Cahnmann-Taylor and Siegesmund 2017; Clark 2017; Thomson and Hall 2019). In practice, these approaches also enhance children's multimodal literacies (Wolfe and Flewitt, 2010), enabling them to articulate and shape their identities and relationships to the world. These methods provide greater material agency to experiences and perspectives that are often challenging to articulate or represent (Kidd, 2009; Nunn, 2017), making them particularly valuable in the ECE context.

To enable a deeper qualitative analysis of the teachingdata collected using the checklist, the information was further analysed through a systematic coding process itself,using and,thematic accordingly,deductive analysis (Braun & Clarke, 2006), which was based on the AT theoretical framework that initially helped to structure the data. This flexible approach, informed by the theoretical or analytical interests of the researcher, allowed for more detailed analysis and a more nuanced understanding of particular aspects of the data (Braun & Clarke, 2006; King, 2004). A checklist based on the Attribution Theory (AT) framework was used to analyse the data, covering subject, object, rules, division of labour and modes of expression. In line with the research aim and questions, the focus was on exploring the role of both physical and symbolic tools as mediating artefacts and the different modes of expression used in improvisation activities with children.

Ethical Considerations

The ethical considerations for this study followed established standards for educational research. Written parental consent was obtained and participants were fully informed about the applicationpurpose and procedures of differentthe teachingstudy. methods.Participation was voluntary and data were anonymised to protect confidentiality and privacy. The study was approved by the Ethical Research Committee of the Faculty of Teacher Education at the University of Zagreb.

CreatingData Analysis: Defining Codes and Categories

Based on a teachingdeductive processanalysis, bythe applyingchecklist differentand teachingthe methodscategories of physical and symbolic tools according to AT, which were aligned with the defined research questions, served as a starting point. After familiarisation with the data, the initial findings of the physical and symbolic tools were organised into codes as modes of expressions from the fieldchecklist, leading to the identification of educationnew themes and teachercategories trainingthat respectsemerged from the diversity of experience of adults who come with different prior knowledgedata (BognarTable & Matijević, 2005)1). ThisAs kindcoding ofis approachan helps people understand their unique needsongoing and createsorganic aprocess, moreit engagingwas environmentnecessary thatto encouragesre-code participantsthe dataset, especially when some themes did not contain enough data or were too diverse, requiring them to be asmerged muchor assplit possibleinto involvedseparate inthemes (Braun & Clarke, 2006). To ensure that the learningselected process.themes Participantsor experiencecategories periodswere of interestunique and boredombroad throughoutenough to capture related ideas across multiple text segments, the trainingdata process,were refined and usingcondensed ainto varietythemes ofthat techniques will contribute to raisingreflected the level of motivation. In this way, the responsibility for the progress and adoptioncontent of the contentimportant outlinedtopics in(Attride-Stirling, 2001). This iterative process ensures that the learningthemes outcomesare is evenly distributed between the participantscoherent and the teacher. Continuous media presence often allows students to return to a part of the lesson at any time (if the lesson is recorded) or to learn (especially a foreign language) even while doing some other activity (e.g. a person runs and wears headphones and learns at the same time foreigncan language).

Creativedistinguished teachingfrom methodseach andother. proceduresThis inultimately teachingallows adults

The needresearchers to incorporategain variousa interactiveclear teaching methods that take into consideration adult learning styles and personality traits has been imposed by knowledge of contemporary adult education teaching and learning methods as well as the various learning styles of adults.  In this way, it is possible to more efficiently focus the attentionunderstanding of the participantsthemes, ontheir relationships and the contentoverarching narrative they needreveal to learn. Learning will be more successful ifabout the persondata is(Braun active& duringClarke, class,2006).

The hethematic feelsanalysis, guided by the physical and symbolic tools (AT) checklist, was expanded with additional details from notes and recordings and grouped into codes and categories/themes that heemerged can participate infrom the formulationdata (Table 1).

Table 1 Results of learningThematic goals,Analysis: if he is entrusted with the responsibility for learning outcomesCodes and if he has the possibility of self-assessment of his own achievements.Categories

The above indicates that the andragogist who is the leader of the teaching activity should take care to recognize the goals and needs of those he teaches and show what meaning teaching can have for the student himself (Vizek Vidović & Vlahović Štetić, 2007). By combining and supplementing teaching methods and techniques, the most successful outcomes in adult education are achieved (Matijević, 2018 according to Andrilović et al., 1985). Although some authors overlap numerous approaches, there are no universal recommendations for the use of a particular approach as the most effective for teaching and learning adults. 

Furthermore, there are different approaches to learning and teaching methods with regard to division and classification criteria. Throughout the historical development of didactic theory and practice, numerous authors advocated different divisions of methods and techniques in teaching (Komensky, 1871; Poljak, 1989; Jelavić, 1998; Peko & Pintarić, 1999; Bognar & Matijević, 2002; Cindrić et al., 2010). Some of the significant authors who wrote about teaching methods used in teaching, among other things in adult education, are presented in Table 1. Types of teaching methods. The paper does not present all the teaching methods that are mentioned in the literature, but only those that are most often mentioned in the pedagogical and didactic literature.

Table 1.

Types of teaching methods

AlthoughFollowing the importancestages of data analysis described by Braun & Clarke (2006), the original data from the checklist were refined into codes and rolecategories/themes. The following codes were defined based on the data presented in Table 1: Body percussion (BP), Movement (M), Storytelling (ST), Musical game (MG), Counting rhymes (CR), "Musical Suits" from Story (MS), Orff instruments (OI), Song (S), Song story (SS), OI improvisation (OII), Sound improvisation (SI), Role selection (RS) and leadership (RSL), Voice improvisation (VI), Voice exploration and improvisation (VII), Visual stimuli (VS), Recorder improvisation (RI), Story and association (SA).

Based on the aforementioned codes, the following categories/themes were defined, representing broader thematic groups of creativitythe data: Multimodal story-based musical activities, Story and song as mediators in creative musical expression/improvisation, Story-driven collaborative role-playing and leadership in musical improvisation, Vocal improvisation as a multisensory and multimodal form of expression, and Story, association and leadership in recorder improvisation.

Considering that themes should be specific yet broad enough to encompass related ideas from multiple text segments (Attride-Stirling, 2001), while being concise, coherent and clearly distinguishable (Braun & Clarke, 2006), two main themes were identified after reviewing the themes obtained: Multimodal and multisensory approaches as a basis for musical improvisation and creative expression, and Storytelling as a mediating tool for the framework of collaborative musical improvisation.

The first theme emphasises the use of creativedifferent teachingmodalities methodssuch as stories, associations, Orff instruments, sounds, songs, counting rhymes, musical games, body percussion, movement and other modalities in combination with sensory input to foster musical creativity and improvisation.

The second theme, Storytelling as a mediating tool for the framework of collaborative musical improvisation, highlights the role of storytelling in creating a framework for group musical activities, fostering leadership skills through role-playing and enhancing collaboration during musical improvisation.

Multimodal Story-Based Musical Activities

This category includes various multimodal activities, including Body percussion (BP), Storytelling (ST), Musical games (MG), Counting rhymes (CR) and the "Musical Suits" (MS) approach, which integrate music, movement and narrative elements to promote children's engagement and learning. The children introduced themselves in a circle with body percussion, playing different rhythms on their bodies while saying the syllables of their names. Some shy children did not want to participate. After everyone had introduced themselves, the activity leader remarked that they were "real experts in body percussion" (BP/1).

Through the two brothers as travelling musicians and main characters, the children learnt about instruments such as the guitar and the recorder, while through the character of a girl who sang, they learnt that the voice is also an instrument that needs to be cared for and nurtured. “We mustn't shout or scream, because then the voice becomes restless and disappears - what we call 'SHOUTO'”. Through the association of a “musical suit”, the children were fully involved in the morestorytelling. successfulThrough realizationthis interactive experience they developed an awareness of different sounds (SI/1 - creating different sounds inspired by stories - tapping, animal voices), the importance of caring for their instruments and voices, creativity, teamwork and an appreciation of music and performance (ST/1). In the musical game, the children represented trees that a blindfolded child had to avoid in order to reach the goal. The children shouted: "I'm here, I'm here" (MG/1, M/1). To choose the child who would play the main role, the children used a counting rhyme (CR/1).

Story and Song as Mediators in Creative Musical Expression/Improvisation

This category includes the following codes: ST as a stimulus; "musical suits" (MS) as a symbolic tool and leitmotif; body percussion (BP), Orff instrument, improvisation (OII), song as a symbolic mediator that deepens the theme (S) and a new short story ("song story" - SS) that introduced the activity of learning a new song, and counting rhyme (CR) to choose from. Inspired by the story, a sound improvisation was spontaneously added to describe the night in the story, which served as a prompt for improvisation: "At night no one works, everyone sleeps. Only when you hear the deepest silence can you start to play". One child spontaneously began to snore, which the other children quickly picked up on and laughed as they joined in the sound improvisation (SI/2).

The song was seamlessly integrated into the storytelling through a new short story ("Song Story" - SS/1). For example, the children found the song "Under the Stone a Crab Dwells" particularly interesting and it became an integral part of the teachingactivity process,"At the Bottom of the Sea" (S/1). After using the counting rhyme for selection (CR/2) and improvisation with Orff instruments (OII/1), a new short story was added when the children's concentration began to wane (ST/2). According to the ECE teacher's report, the children were still humming this song long after the activity had finished.

Story-Driven Collaborative Role Play and Leadership in Musical Improvisation

In this category and theme, the children take the initiative to lead the play and choose activities. Storytelling encourages this leadership by motivating children to take on roles and improvise. This process encourages group synchronisation and collaboration as children work together to build on each other's ideas and create shared narratives. Through these activities (Table 1), children not only practise their creativity, but also improve their ability to work and communicate effectively in a group.

For example, the children again suggest their own counting rhymes to divide up the roles, which reinforces their sense of involvement and agency. For example, in the activity "At the Bottom of the Sea", where all the children wanted to play the big rain stick, 'like a real sea', a counting rhyme was again used to allocate roles and choose instruments within the story (CR/ 3). Furthermore, in the activity "In the Anthill", when the facilitator said "We have two xylophones today", the children replied: "I want it, I want it...". After the facilitator asked: "How do we decide?", the children suggested a counting rhyme themselves (CR/4).

In the same activity, the guidance of the gong player in the activity emphasises leadership and collaboration, initially led by the music teacher and later taken over by the children through the symbolic role of the gong player (RSL/1). This combination encourages dynamic group interaction, with the gong player leading the group through the process of group improvisation with Orff instruments (OII/2) and stimulating creativity in the integration of sound, movement (M/2) and singing. The gong player played a central role in guiding the flow of the activity, ensuring that the children worked together effectively as they explored and expressed their musical and creative abilities through the story-inspired improvisation process.

Vocal Improvisation as a Multisensory and Multimodal Mode of Expression

The visual stimulus (VS) for the vocal exploration and improvisation (VII) was a painting by Wassily Kandinsky entitled “Yellow, Red, Blue”. The painting (P) became a symbolic tool that encouraged the children to describe the individual elements of the painting with all the sounds that their vocal apparatus could produce. The VS was read to the group and then, when most of the children felt encouraged and relaxed, individual children volunteered to describe certain parts themselves using VI. This was the first type of VI inspired by the artwork presented.

In the next task, each child was asked to draw their own VS on paper, which was then interpreted as a VI. This task also stimulated their artistic creativity, inspired by the possibilities of their voices. The drawings were very different, and each child made an effort to create a drawing that matched their voice. When the time came for the VI, most of the children confidently presented their drawings and performed their music with their voices in front of the group. Only one girl was hesitant to read her score on her own, but after the suggestion that someone could read along with her, she gained confidence and performed her score with help.

Story, Association and Leadership in Recorder Improvisation

A short story (Song Story - SS/3) about the blackbird who asked a musician to write a song about it inspired the adoption of a new song (The Blackbird Song). The story and song were used to introduce the children to improvisation on the recorder. In a playful way, using stories and associations with birds, the children improvised on the recorder and its various parts, discovering different ways of making sounds while communicating in pairs - mimicking conversations between two birds.

For example, some children spontaneously started to improvise with their voice (Voice exploration and improvisation - VII/2), which underlines their natural need to express themselves through different modalities. They also spontaneously added different movements (M/3) while playing the instruments. Various associative prompts, such as "owls at night", led to group improvisations about different "flocks of birds" in the night. After choosing the main bird through a counting rhyme, one child takes on the role of the leader, who goes back and forth between the groups of "sleeping birds" "at night", wakes them up and interacts with them. As the main bird, the boy T plays a decisive role. He decided on the play signals - one for the individual groups and another for the collective game - and went from group to group to “wake up" the birds and give them signals. He communicated with the groups in a way that encouraged collaboration and creative expression. When T reached a group, he signalled them to play. He gradually involved other groups until a joint improvisation was achieved. In this way, each group has the opportunity to express themselves before coming together to create a shared musical experience. This activity encourages creativity, collaboration and the children's ability to express themselves through different modalities - the recorder as a physical tool, vocal improvisation and movement.

Discussion

Using Activity Theory (AT) as a reflexive tool in early childhood music education (McGlone, 2019, 2020, 2022), this study explores how multimodal and multisensory interactions shape children's engagement in musical improvisation. In the thematic search phase, the initial checklist of physical and symbolic tools was expanded into codes, which in turn were grouped into broader themes, including new themes suggested by the data. Two overarching themes were then defined, taking into account the observed relationships between the main categories.

Analysis of the data on AT-based modes of expression (body percussion, storytelling, story and association, musical suits from the story, musical games, counting rhymes, song, Orff instruments, improvisation with Orff instruments, sound improvisation, role selection and leadership, vocal improvisation, visual stimuli, recorder improvisation) resulted in the following categories/themes: Multimodal story-based musical activities, Story and song as mediators in creative musical expression/improvisation, Story-driven collaborative role-play and leadership in musical improvisation, Vocal improvisation as a multisensory and multimodal mode of expression and Story, association and leadership in recorder improvisation.

Following a final analysis of the defined themes (Braun & Clarke, 2006), based on the review and refinement of the above categories/themes, two main themes/categories were defined: Multimodal and multisensory approaches as a basis for musical improvisation and creative expression, and Storytelling as a mediating tool for the framework of collaborative musical improvisation. The identified categories/themes address the research questions of the study by highlighting storytelling and association as important modes of expression and mediating artefacts that structure and support creative musical improvisation in ECE. These findings also highlight the role of multimodal forms of communication and symbolic tools in shaping musical improvisation. Furthermore, the children's engagement with storytelling and role-playing suggests that these elements serve as effective mediating artefacts in early childhood music education.

According to MacGlone's research (2019; 2020; 2022), the improvisation activities performed can be viewed through the lens of the defined categories of Creative Music Agency (CMA) and Socio-Musical Aptitude (S-MA). Through authentic and spontaneous expression in the context of activities tailored to the children's interests and needs, the children developed their ideas and discovered unique modes of expression, which is an example of CMA. In addition, collaborative creation fostered a dynamic, interactive and holistic experience in a creative and engaging environment, reflecting S-MA.

Based on the view that the inherently multimodal nature of music is an effective way to learn by engaging all modalities, music classrooms should provide rich sensory stimulation while understanding students' individual modal strengths, which can further enhance their musical learning experience (Campbell, Scott-Kassner, & Kassner, 2006). For example, in the Multimodal story-based musical activities, children were encouraged to make different sounds (e.g., tapping, animal voices, use of body percussion) through the “musical story” and the symbolism of “musical suits” while emphasising the importance of caring for their instruments and voices, creativity, teamwork, and appreciation of music and performance (ST/1).

Through exploration as musical play, storytelling encouraged children to choose instruments and associate their sounds with the characters in the story. As an additional stimulus to storytelling, which guided the whole activity under the category of 'Story and song as mediators of creative musical expression/improvisation', a song was integrated with which the children became familiar through a new short story (Song story - SS). This story also contributed to the expressive way in which the song was performed (S1, ST2, SS1). Through the storytelling and associations that arise from the story, as well as achievingthrough desiredthe integration of singing, spontaneous counting rhymes for selection (CR/2), spontaneous sound improvisations (SI/1) and improvisations on Orff instruments (OII/1) are created. The children are encouraged to think while listening, performing or creating, while being given opportunities to explore (Campbell, Scott-Kassner, & Kassner, 2006). It is precisely the discovery method (Bruner, 1966) and experiential learning outcomes,through haveplay, beenmovement, emphasizedlistening and creativity that contribute to the development of children's sensitivity to music, which in turn enhances their creativity (Bačlija Sušić & Brebrić, 2022). Furthermore, by recognising and utilising students' individual modal strengths, music education provides a rich sensory stimulation that enhances the overall learning experience (Scott-Kassner & Kassner, 2006).

In the Story-driven collaborative role play and leadership in musical improvisation category, inspired by the story “At the Bottom of the Sea”, storytelling also motivates children to take on roles and leadership in improvisation, promoting synchronisation and collaboration within the group. The division of roles and selection of instruments using a counting rhyme (CR/3) emphasises the gong player's leadership role in the activity (RSL/1). Initially, the music teacher takes the lead, but then the children take the lead and foster teamwork through the symbolic position of the gong player (RSL/1). Accordingly, it is crucial to emphasise the role of the leader of the musical activity as a facilitator and how their actions effectively support and enhance the children's creative development (MacGlone, Wilson & MacDonald, 2021). By implementing appropriate interventions tailored to children's needs, ECE teachers as leaders of music activities can enhance children's musical experiences and reflect the quality of the process through higher levels of engagement and well-being, which is a fundamental aim of the ECEC curriculum (Bačlija Sušić, Fišer Sedinić & Cvrtila, 2022). This category focuses on developing children's leadership skills through play and improvisation so that they can take responsibility for manyleading years,activities, othermanaging sciencesgroup aredynamics increasinglyand enteringcreating shared experiences. Through free improvisation, children explored and led play, developing creative skills, confidence and collaboration. For example, unlike using open-ended prompts such as 'Just play' (MacGlone, 2019), cues to initiate play were integrated into the fieldsstorytelling of pedagogythe guided activities. For example, in the story "No One Works at Night, Everyone Sleeps", the child playing the role of the owl was given a cue to start playing. At the same time, another child spontaneously began to snore (SI/2). The activities in this category help the children to recognise and educationdevelop their leadership skills while promoting group cohesion and creative interaction through the use of Orff instruments as a primary mode of expression.

In contrast to the prescribed form of improvisation (Lewis, 2014), in the vocal improvisation, despite their vocal shyness, the children spontaneously engaged in a broadervocal senseimprovisation inspired by visual stimuli, followed by an improvisation based on their own drawings (informatics,VI/2). economics,Similarly, mathematics...)the recorder was used as a tool for group improvisation (Dubovicki,RI) along with the voice as an instrument for improvisation to encourage leadership dynamics, acceptance of the leader's signals and symbolic connections to bird behaviour and daily cycles in nature. A short story served as a prompt to perform the song (SS/3, ST/2), further promoting active engagement, spontaneity, and interactive learning in the improvisation activity (Hickey, 2015; Linson, 2014).

By providing a framework with examples of storytelling, the activity leader facilitated and encouraged the children to invent and express their stories through musical improvisation. Based on their experiences, the children suggested their own themes and stories and expressed them through improvisation. This approach helped to create a supportive environment where the children could build on each other's ideas without fear of judgement (Larsson and Öhman, 2018; Larsson, 2019; TopolovčanMacGlone, 2019). This is also supported by other research with children aged 9-10 years (Larsson & Dubovicki,Öhman, 2019;2018; 2024)Larsson, 2019). TheS

In systemall isthe increasinglyexamples adaptingmentioned, storytelling was the basic mode of communication and expression, which, in addition to the needsmodes of expression described, also included various forms of musical activities such as musical games, songs and counting rhymes, which additionally contributed to the successful implementation of improvisation activities. Moreover, this type of musical activity, as a form of folk heritage, enriches and deepens the activity and its theme or topic (Zalar, 2020), while developing children's cultural awareness

Two main themes identified during the final review process, Multimodal and multisensory approaches to musical improvisation and creative expression, and Storytelling as a mediating tool for the framework of collaborative musical improvisation, are in line with the research aim to explore and describe children's creative musical expression and communication in collaborative improvisation activities in the ECE context, emphasising the multisensory and multimodal nature. These two main themes illustrate that storytelling is one of the labormost market,common somodes of expression and communication within the multimodal approach to ECE improvisation activities. Storytelling provides structure to the whole process and encourages creative expression across different media and modes. As a mediating artefact, it facilitates improvisation in the ECE context by providing rules and guidelines that shape and organise the improvisation activities. The identification of storytelling as an important mediating artefact underlines its pedagogical importance for ECE improvisation. By structuring creative expression and providing implicit rules, storytelling facilitates both individual and collective engagement in music making. These findings contribute to a broader understanding of multimodal learning in ECE and highlight the importance of structured yet flexible pedagogical approaches to improvisation.

Conclusion

According to the results and defined themes, in the field of adultmusical improvisation in early childhood education we(ECE), arestorytelling reachingserved foras newerthe primary and redesignedpredominant teachingmediating methods.artefact Someand mode of themexpression areand especiallycommunication usedwithin a multimodal approach to improvisation. It integrated all other modes of expression, acted as a mediator that facilitated improvisation, allowed children to explore within clear structures, and fostered creativity, leadership, collaboration, and personal and social skills. By combining different modes of expression (both physical and symbolic tools), children's communicative behaviour in thecreative fieldmusic sessions can be described as multimodal, with these modes serving as primary forms of economics,communication, facilitating and aremediating betterthe knowncommunication as:process Design(MacGlone, thinking,2019; PARWassrin, 2016, 2019). In this process, the role of the teacher shifts from a direct teacher to a facilitator, encouraging children's creative autonomy and SCAMPERallowing method.them Theto mentionedgradually methodstake arecontrol particularlyof wellthe receivedimprovisation process. These findings directly address the research questions by demonstrating that storytelling acts as both a mediating artefact and a communicative bridge that shapes children's engagement in multimodal musical improvisation.

In addition, the younger populationintegration of adultssongs, duecounting rhymes and musical games as symbolic mediators deepens the theme of the activity, broadens the children's focus and engagement, and provides a seamless transition between the different elements of the improvisation. After the teacher/activity leader provided a framework that initially guided the children's creative expression, the children gradually began to suggest their applicabilityown in a real economic environment. Following a defined teaching structure according to the mentioned methods also empowers themthemes for the openimprovisation laborbased marketon their experiences and took charge of the overall activity. This created a supportive environment in suchwhich athey waycould collaborate freely and without fear of judgement (Larsson and Öhman, 2018; Larsson, 2019; MacGlone, 2019). This emphasises the important role of the teacher or activity leader and confirms that byadult applying structured steps of certain methods, they increase their competitiveness when seeking jobs in the open labor market, as well as in the economic environment. 

Design thinking (DT)

Design thinking (DT)involvement is a techniquemethodological thatchallenge when exploring the relationship between play and child development (Hakkarainen & Bredikyte, 2019). Thus, in improvisation and creativity, adults often have more opportunities to engage with children through various artistic and multimodal forms of expression such as storytelling.

Storytelling is applied in the economic environment with the purpose of finding solutions for improved results, and in the educational context, a redesigned application of DT has created a method that encourages the acquisition of new skills and knowledge in a practical and creative way (Pap et al., 2019).The teaching method based on design thinking (hereinafter referred to as DT) arose due to the evident inadequacy of the learning and teaching methods of educational institutions with the real economic environment, which has raised concerns regarding employability (Charles, 2022). The authors emphasize (Martin, 2009; Starkey & Tempest, 2009; Glen et al., 2014; Matthews & Wrigley, 2017) that the application of DT in the educational context has developed thanks to the valuable contributions that DT has made in business and management. In an educational context, design reflection encourages students to develop their ideas and experience their own mistakes as part of the learning process (Rupčić, 2022). This process is a set of different methods, which are applied in order to achieve the best possible result and there is no standardized model of application of the design thinking method (Waidelich et al., 2018). Design thinking uses divergent thinkingrecognised as a wayvaluable topedagogical ensure more possible solutions are explored at the initial level, and then convergent thinking to advance and realize the final solution (Pap et al., 2019). Common procedures are based on the processes of reflection, creation and reflection: 1. Compassion – observing the environment and active listening, researching possibilities for improvement, analysis of limitations, identification of the type of problem (eg. personal versus group challenge); 2. Defining – selection and interpretation of important data collected in the sympathy phase, review of the observed problem, transformation from the discovered need into a clear goal; 3. Forming a plan - thinking in order to find a solution to the problem, choosing the best idea, analysis of limitations, clear definition of the idea; 4. Prototype – prototype construction, feedback collection, prototype improvement analysis, assessment of available resources; 5. Evaluation – definition of criteria for success, monitoring of changes in the environment, planning and presentation of prototypes (Rupčić, 2022).

In the context of adult education, the application of the design thinking method encourages students to think and solve problems in a new and unproven way and represents a kind of preparation for navigating a rapidly changing and technologically increasingly complex society (Pap et al., 2019). The mentioned benefits were also detected as a result of encouraging creativity in teaching (Dubovicki, 2013; 2016). The advantages of the DT approach in acquiring knowledge are as follows: 1. understanding the content from a different perspective, 2. studying the problem in detail to determine its root cause, 3. developing innovative thinking and creative problem solving, 4. ensuring that the final outcome meets the goals and requirements, 5. it results in a new experience, which is more efficient and useful for the students than the traditional approach and 6. it enables the continuous expansion of knowledge (Pap et al., 2019).

PAR method (Present – Apply – Review Method)

The name of the PAR method is an acronym consisting of the initial letters of the Anglosaxon name Present - Apply - Review. The application of the PAR method requires that the participants think about the answers to the given questions, agree on them in pairs and then present the solution (Kunt, 2020). After presenting their work and considering the interpretations of the other pairs, each pair discusses the solution they have chosen, clarifies any misconceptions, and ultimately comes up with the correct answer. In case of disagreement, each member of the couple should argue their solution or opinion. The PAR model is characterized by three phases of learning new teaching content, which is shown in Figure 3.

Figure 3.

Characteristics of the PAR technique

With this method, emphasis is placed on collaborative learning, which requires the participants to analyze the content, solve it together, and thereby indirectly develop the skills of teamwork and assertive communication.

SCAMPER method

Scamper is a technique that emerged from the world of entrepreneurship, but it can be successfully applied for educational purposes,tool, especially in the educationteaching and development of professional skills through music, both in university classrooms and in early childhood and primary education (Rodríguez Lorenzo, 2016; Menéndez Valdeolmillos, 2020; Arteaga Checa, Zagalaz Sánchez, & Cepero González, 1999). Engaging with children's voices and imaginations through improvisation with arts-based approaches supports their creative expression and deepens their understanding, filling the youngerresearch populationgap in studies of adults.group Accordingimprovisation towith authorschildren Korkut(MacGlone, 2022).

Therefore, the integration of storytelling through sound and music in early childhood and primary education programmes is crucial (Chao-Fernández, Reis da Silva, & KopalGillanders, (2018),2023). eachFinally, letterstorytelling ofprovides thevaluable SCAMPERexperiences methodfor ischildren anby acronymimmersing (Figure 4) that represents separate questions that must be consideredthem in ordera tomagical achieveworld, thestimulating desiredtheir result.  It implies group workimagination and encouragesleading creativity in groups of participants in terms of finding solutions to certain problems. It suggests teamwork and fosters innovation among participants in terms of resolving certain issues. It is used in accordance with a set of guidelines, asking questions regarding the subject matter at all times, and adhering to all seven letters of the acronym that makes up the method's name. 

Figure 4.

The meaning of the acronym SCAMPER

In Figure 4, we can see the acronym consisting of the letters SCAMPER. Below is an explanation of the mentioned terms:

• S - substitute - thinking about what needs to be changed.

• C - combine - different knowledge is connected and integrated, i.e. old ideas from which new ones should be created.

• A - adapt - means adding new elements, adapting to the current situation.

• M - modify - encourages a change of perspective. Contemplating about what should be changed and what should be kept.

• P - put to the use (change of purpose or purpose of use) - encourages adaptationthem to new challenges, new knowledge, enablingwhile newproviding functionality.

• E - eliminate - represents simplificationstructure and facilitation,support in today's information-rich world. When a child is constantly enriched with positive experiences, they develop into well-rounded and quality individuals (Horvat Vukelja & Heisenger, 2019), which benefits society as wella aswhole. contemplation about what could be eliminated to make what we want to keep maximally useful. 

• Literature

  RAngell, -C., reverse/Alexander, rearrangeJ., -& standsHunt, forJ. reconstruction,A. (2015). Draw, write and intell: thisA stepliterature the most acceptable ideas are chosen.

By asking numerous questions that are guided by the initial letters of the names of the techniques, creativityreview and creativemethodological thinking are encouraged. Creativity significantly dependsdevelopment on the context. Individuals have it as a natural gift, but for many, creativity is very underdeveloped.  Using the SCAMPER method, it is possible to develop‘draw and improvewrite ideas that can help us solve problems. Answering the questions encourages a creative approach to the problem and the adoption of new content. The creativity of the participants plays a decisive role in the effectiveness of the application of thisresearch method. By applying a constructivist teaching strategy, the SCAMPER method in an educational context aims to help students develop metacognition, critical thinking and problem-solving skills (Solomon, 2003). By applying the SCAMPER method, an attempt is made to transform current knowledge and create a new perspective. Although creativity plays a decisive role in this technique, it is important to try to implement it regardless of the participant’s personality. Such a way of working emphasizes a strong orientation to the process of education, instead of exclusively to its result. The emphasis is on the method of acquiring new knowledge, not on the content itself. It is important to point out that the process of acquiring knowledge is not opposed to the result, but both are equally taken into account, not even as separate entities, but as a dialectical unity. In this sense, improvisation helps to put emphasis on methodology in the educational process instead of exclusively on content (Nikolić, 2019).

Active learning in the context of adult education

The concept of active learning is not at all a new pedagogical or didactic concept. The same is indirectly mentioned in the history of pedagogy during the period of school development - pedagogical school directions (Munjiza, 2009; Turk, 2009). Despite the many definitions of active learning, we can say that active learning represents learning in which a high degree of independence and self-regulation is achieved, various thinking strategies and specific cognitive skills are applied that enable essential learning, analysis and comparison of information, their connection with existing knowledge and critical judgment their meanings; learning that enables long-term memory (Turk, 2009; Dubovicki, 2016). The discourse on lifelong learning emphasizes, among other things, the importance of the active involvement of the individual and the need to take responsibility for his own learning and the end result. This is especially emphasized in the adult education, because active learning includes different perspectives of the participants. It is based on the constructivist theory of learning, where participants, with the support of an andragogist, research and develop knowledge on their own. Contemporary adult education involves an active and partnership-based relationship between participants and the andragogist leading the teaching process, using creative andragogical methods that include research-based, meaningful, and problem-based teaching. 

Active involvement in the learning process is one of the key factors in increasing the attention of participants in the teaching process. Teaching focused on the teaching process or teaching focused on the participants in the teaching process is an approach to teaching that emphasizes planning based on activities and experience rather than on knowledge that is acquired and facts that need to be memorized. Such learning is based on individual discovery, immediate experience, and creative work (Nikčević-Milković, 2004). An active approach to learning provides participants with more frequent feedback on their progress, takes into account different learning styles, allows them to discuss the content they are learning, and encourages the development of collaborative, communication, negotiation, and other "soft" skills.  It also increases students' self-confidence through conversation with other students, but also through increased interaction between the teacher and participants in the teaching process. In the active approach to adult learning, the andragogue, as the leader of the educational process, provides direct feedback on the level of acquisition, understanding, or misunderstanding, as well as on the misconceptions that need to be corrected. 

Contemporary social demands also require a new type of knowledge, skills, abilities, values and attitudes, i.e. new competencies that promote innovation, creativity, ability to solve problems, critical thinking, entrepreneurship, information literacy, etc. (Peko & Varga, 2014). Active learning methods encourage the development of 21st century skills and are necessary to overcome the challenges of an unpredictable future (Stephen et al., 2010; Gazibara, 2013; Peko & Varga, 2014).

Turk (2009) investigates how active learning of students in university classes affects the development of creativity of future teachers and emphasizes active learning techniques, which he divides into three groups:

1. techniques that require shorter preparation and fewer resources – these include: the technique of teaching by questioning and brainstorming 

2. techniques that require shorter written preparation and materials - these include: collaborative learning and the technique of mutual explanation

3. techniques that require longer written preparation and materials – these include: case study, peer learning, discussion, problem-based learning, and independent learning technique 

The mentioned active learning techniques can be applied in various contexts, certainly in lifelong education and adult education. Knowing oneself, one's own goals, priorities, potential, relationship with time and process, insight into one's position in a group, team, collective, and contact with one's own thoughts and feelings become something that emerges beyond the usual frameworks of learning and teaching by the leader of the educational process (Urbanc & Kletečki Radović, 2007). The application of modern, creative methods in the educational context, by respecting the personal experiences and knowledge of the individual, lays the foundations for collaborative and experiential learning, which is the basis of active learning. Active participation of students in the teaching process (asking questions, research, solving problems, etc.) leads to their personal construction of knowledge. Therefore, the time spent on achieving the goal is as valuable as the knowledge gained at the end (Peko & Varga, 2014). This is especially important to apply in adults education, because it contributes to individualizing teaching process in which they are involved, and the teaching is more dynamic and purposeful for adults, which includes practical learning, encourages divergent and convergent learning and learning through discovery.

According to the conclusion

When organizing classes for adults, the use of various methods and techniques enables better insights into one's own interests, goals and priorities, i.e. the expression of the potential of the students, but also the general exploration of personal identity. When organizing classes for adults, the use of various methods and techniques allows for better insights into one's own interests, goals, and priorities, as well as the expression of the potential of the learners and, more generally, the exploration of personal identity. Andragogues believe that the use of various methods and techniques requires greater engagement in the design of activities, and more complex competencies in divergent thinking and creativity are needed. However, such an approach leads to greater involvement of participants in the educational process, positively impacting the quantity, quality, and durability of overall knowledge. Such an approach helps participants develop creative thinking, better understanding, and improved memory by connecting ideas, words, and concepts. 

It is also necessary to develop knowledge and insights about the appropriate approach to teaching adults and the andragogical profession in general, as well as insights into the appropriate competencies, skills, and knowledge that andragogical workers should possess. Andragogy as a science is underdeveloped and relies on pedagogy, and as a result, methodological and didactic procedures are often improvised to suit the adult population of learners.  This is precisely why this paper presents methods that were developed on the basis of economic sciences and are applied in a real economic environment. Applying proven steps and procedures of the mentioned methods in an educational context has proven to be an effective way of teaching adults. Particularly significant are the media that provide additional benefits for the participants themselves, but which need to be properly dosed so that the humanizing role that the educational system as a whole nurtures is not lost. The intention is not to diminish the value and importance of existing teaching methods, but to open new challenges through interdisciplinarity and multimedia, which significantly meet the needs of today's learners and continuously present new challenges for the andragogue.
      Given the increasing human lifespan, we can expect a rising trend in adult participation in educational programs in the future, and thus the significance of andragogy as a science will continue to grow, making it an important area to research and develop. 

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