The Digital Literacy of First Grade Primary School Students

Note. ^*p < .05; ^**p < .01; ^***Self-compassion scale with mindfulness items (item 3, item 7) omitted.

Regression analysis

A linear regression analysis was performed with mindfulness and four EI dimensions as predictors and self-compassion as criteria (Table 2). Together predictors explained 42% of the variance in students’ self-compassion (F_5,155 = 22.69, p < 0.001).  In line with Hypothesis 1b, mindfulness was a uniquely significant predictor of self-compassion. Regarding Research Question 1b, only EI dimensions of SEA, ROE and UOE were shown as uniquely significant predictors of self-compassion. Variance Inflation Factor (VIF) value for EI dimensions and self-compassion ranged from 1.13 to 1.64 indicating that all values are smaller than 10, meaning that there is no multicollinearity in the independent predictors.

Table 2

Regression analysis results with self-compassion as a criteria.

Note. β = standardized beta coefficients; ^*p < .05; ^**p < .01.

Mediation analysis

The results of the mediation analyses with EI dimensions of SEA, ROE and UOE, as parallel mediators between mindfulness and self-compassion are displayed in Table 3 and Figure 1. In line with Hypothesis 4, dimensions of EI mediated the relationship between mindfulness and self-compassion. In regard to Research Question 2, mediation analysis showed a partial mediation of mindfulness on self-compassion through the three EI dimensions, i.e., SEA (2a), ROE (2c) and UOE (2d) that acted as parallel mediators. The direct relation between mindfulness and self-compassion remained significant indicating the mediation was partial. Higher mindfulness fosters students’ self-compassion both directly, and indirectly via higher SEA, ROE and UOE. All mediators had a significant indirect effect on self-compassion. Although, UOE had the highest ratio of indirect to total effect (.19), specific indirect effect contrast analysis showed that the indirect effect of specific EI dimensions does not significantly differ from each other as shown in bootstrap method (with 5,000 bootstrap samples) at 95% confidence intervals.

Figure 1

Mediating role of the three EI dimensions in the relationship between mindfulness and self-compassion

Note. SEA = self-emotional appraisal, ROE = regulation of emotion, UOE = use of emotion; non-standardized coefficients; ^*p < .05; ^**p < .01. a relationship between predictor and mediator, b relationship between mediator and criteria, c total effect, c’ direct effect.

Table 3

Regression coefficients, standard errors, and confidence intervals for the indirect effects (mediators EI dimension: SEA, ROE, UOE)

Instruments

Since the respondents were aged six and seven, the data gathering method used was a simple questionnaire containing eleven items written on paper (Table 2).

Table 2

Questionnaire items with answer options

The first two items dealt with students’ gender and the place of residence. The other nine items were statements concerning attending the optional subject of informatics, having the computer at home, asking parents or guardians for permission to use computers, knowledge of recognizing the computer parts, knowledge of the use of computer hardware and software to perform simple tasks such as turning on or off computers, writing and editing texts, make drawings, searching the Internet, and understanding and applying rules of conduct on the Internet. The students could answer if they agree or disagree with the statement with simple dichotomous options: yes or no.

The statements were chosen according to the curriculum of the optional subject Informatics and its learning outcomes in the first grade of primary school in Croatia (Ministry of Science and Education, 2018). The items of the questionnaire were adapted to the target group.

Procedure

The survey was implemented using the guidelines of the Ethical Code of Research with Children (National Ethics Committee for Research with Children, 2020).

The survey took place in two counties of northwestern Croatia from March to May 2023. The respondents were students of four primary schools, of which two are in urban and the other two in rural areas. The first author of this paper provided assistance and explanations to the respondents when they were filling out the questionnaire.

The chi-squared test is used to explore the statistically significant differences between students according to their gender and their place of residence (urban and rural).

The statistical software GNU PSPP 1.4.1 was used in the data processing.

Results

Table 3 shows the statements and the number of respondents’ responses (whether they agree with a specific statement or not). There is a total number of responses and there are responses by gender. In the next columns are the results of chi-squared tests (χ², df, p).

Table 3.

Number of students’ responses by item and gender

Note. B 

Most of the respondents (98 out of 104, 94.2%) attend the optional subject of informatics in the first grade and there is no statistically significant difference by gender (χ²= non-standardized0.38, betadf=1, coefficients;p=0.538).

When the place of residence is considered then there is no statistically significant difference between rural and urban respondents except in the item “I know how to search the Internet” where there is a statistically significant difference (χ²= 4.63, df=1, p=0.031).01; CIThere 95%are confidencemore interval:urban LCI/UCIrespondents lower/upper(100.0%) confidencethan interval.rural respondents (88.2%) who know how to search the Internet (Google, YouTube).

The research results show that most of the respondents (over 87.5%) self-assess themselves as having acquired the required learning outcomes specified in the informatics curriculum for the first grade in the field of Digital Literacy and Communication: 88.5% know how to turn on/off computers, 89.4% know the names of the computer parts, 87.5% know how to write a text using a computer, 94.2% know how to make a drawing using a computer, 94.2% know how to use the Internet, and 91.3% understand and apply the rules of conduct on the Internet. 87.5% have computers at home and 92.3% of the respondents attended the optional subject of informatics.

Discussion

This study contributes to an understandingConfirmation of the relationshiphypotheses

H1 mindfulness,states dimensionsthat there is no statistically significant difference in the self-assessed digital literacy of emotionalfirst intelligencegrade primary school students by gender (female and self-compassion.male).

AsThere expected,is no statistically significant difference in the resultsfollowing showeditems that mindfulness was positively relatedcontribute to self-compassion,the bothdigital bivariatelyliteracy of first grade primary school students:

-        I know how to turn on/off the computer

-        I know how to write a text using a computer

-        I know how to make a drawing using a computer

-        I know how to search the Internet (Google, YouTube)

-        I understand and uniquely.apply Theserules resultsof conduct on the Internet.

A statistically significant difference is observed only in the item “I know the names of the computer parts” where there are inmore linefemale with previous researchrespondents (Egan97.9%) etthan al.,male 2021; Hollis-Walker & Colosimo, 2011; McArthur at al., 2017; Martinez-Rubio et al., 2023; Tran et al., 2022). Also as expected, results showed that overall EI was positively and moderately related to self-compassion, in line with previous studiesrespondents (Di81.1%) Fabiowho &know Saklofske,the 2021;names Heffernanof etcomputer al.,parts 2011;(χ²= Neff,5.23, 2003b;df=1, Thomas et al., 2024)p=0.022).

ThisThe studyhypothesis alsoH1 revealedis confirmed.

H2 states that there is no significant difference in the relationshipself-assessed betweendigital specificliteracy EIof dimensionsfirst grade primary school students by their place of residence (rural and self-compassion.urban Moreareas).

There resultsis showedno statistically significant difference in the following items that threecontribute to the digital literacy of fourprimary EIschool dimensions,first-grade i.e.,students:

-        I know how to turn on/off the computer

-        I know the names of the computer parts

-        I know how to write a text using a computer

-        I know how to make a drawing using a computer

-        I understand and understandingapply rules of emotionconduct on the Internet.

A statistically significant difference is observed only in self,the item “I know how to search the Internet (Google, YouTube)” where there are more urban respondents (100.0%) than rural respondents (88.2%) who know how to search the Internet (χ²= 4.63, df=1, p=0.031).

The hypothesis H2 is confirmed.

H3 states that more than 80% of students use the Internet.

98 out of emotion104 (94.2%) respondents self-assess themselves as they know how to search the Internet. The hypothesis H3 is confirmed.

The research in this paper uses respondents’ self-assessed data related to their digital competence. The respondents’ age is six or seven so there is a possibility that they do not understand the questionnaire statements and/or cannot self-assess their knowledge. However, they could get guidance and help from a researcher who was present when they filled out the questionnaire. The questionnaire items were very simple and dichotomous.

It is difficult to get valid overviews of skills through questionnaires. The main reason for self-motivatingthis purposeis andthat self-regulationrespondents weretend bivariatelyto andoverestimate uniquelythemselves, associatedespecially when it comes to technical skills (Ala-Mutka, 2011).

García-Vandewalle et al. (2021) warn that evaluating subjectivity may have limitations. The respondents’ subjectivity regarding their level of knowledge is one of the main issues with self-compassion.assessment. TheseHowever, EIself-assessment dimensionsis essentiallystill representa waysvalid tool for ascertaining how students perceive their learning and enables the detection of their strengths and weaknesses.

Godaert et al. (2022) analysed 14 studies concerning the assessment of students’ digital competences in whichprimary school. The studies used various scoring systems: three were dichotomous (1=correct; 0=incorrect), four were 5-point Likert scale, one was a person7-point Likert scale, one scoring rubric (0-2 point, 0-5 points), four combined, and one not mentioned. At least five of them were using self-reported data collection. The age of the target population in the studies was mostly in the range of 9 to 13. Only one study, Jun et al (2014), included the first grade of primary school respondents of age 6.

Merritt et al. (2005) report that there were differences in respondents’ self-reported and actual digital literacy. They asked 55 students to self-report their computer literacy and later they were tested in their digital literacy. Research results show that there is ablea statistically significant difference between self-reported (N=55, M=2.164, SD=0.788) and actual tested (N=55, M=1.873, SD=0.610) levels of digital literacy.

Porat et al. (2018) report on digital literacy research results on 280 junior-high-school students where they compared their perceived digital literacy competencies and their actual performance in relevant digital tasks. Participants expressed high confidence in their digital literacy and overestimated their actual tested competence.

However, Tzafilkou et al (2022) developed and validated students’ digital competence scale based on self-reported data.

Asil et al (2014) used the 5-point Likert scale to collect data on measuring computer attitudes of young students in three separate factors: perceived ease of use, affect towards computers and perceived usefulness.

Hernández-Marín (2024) concludes that attitude scales have been consolidated as valuable elements in educational evaluation, allowing participants' perceptions of their learning to be compassionatesatisfactorily towardcaptured. self.Self-assessment Neffturns (2003a) argued that in orderout to experience self-compassion a person should be ablean exceptionally effective method for measuring attitudes. However, to monitorgain more perspective, complete and clearlyaccurate apprehendlearning, theirit ownis emotions, and use that informationnecessary to rapidly recover from painful experiences by transforming them into self-kindness and self-understanding (Neff, 2003). Therefore, this study’s results extend similar prior research (Şenyuva et al., 2011) which found that self-management and self-motivation are positively related to self-compassion and further suggestcomplement the crucialattitude rolescales ofwith theseother EI dimensions for experiencing self-compassion. methods.

In thistheir three-year longitudinal study, Lazonder et al (2020) followed the EIdigital dimensionliteracy progress of perception151 fifth and understandingsixth graders in their skills to collect, create, transform, and safely use digital information. They report that the children made the most progress in their ability to collect information. However, their capacity for generating information showed the smallest enhancement. “Development of emotionmost skills was moderately related, and it was independent of gender, grade level, migration background, and improvements in othersreading comprehension and maths. Children's socioeconomic status was notweakly relatedassociated to self-compassion. This could be because the applied Wong and Law (2002) OEA scale measures being perceptive and apprehending others’ emotions rather than using that information for influencing or managing others' emotions which is known to be usually positively related to self-compassion (e.g., Di Fabio & Saklofske, 2021). Also, this result is interesting from a developmental perspective since Maynard et al., (2022) study on an adolescent sample revealed a small but significant negative correlation (r = -.20^**) betweenwith the ability to identifycollect and safely use information, but not with the emotionalother statestwo ofdigital othersliteracy and self-compassion. More specifically, their findings suggest that adolescents who demonstrate a heightened ability to perceive emotions in others, particularly negative emotions, experience lower levels of self-compassion and feelings of self-worth. Self-compassion varies depending on ageskills” (TaversLazonder et al.,al, 2024),2020, andp. it may be that the relationship between self-compassion and OEA and other EI dimensions may also be different depending on age, but this should be further investigated.

The other main finding of the study is that of the partially mediating role of the EI dimensions in the relationship between mindfulness and self-compassion. Results indicated that a higher level of mindfulness leads to a higher perception of emotion in self, higher use of emotions for self-motivation and a higher level of regulation of emotion, which all lead to a higher level of self-compassion. Park and Dhandra (2017) found that the tendency of mindful individuals to be attentive, present-focused, and non-judgmental makes them more capable of understanding and managing emotions well and utilizing these emotions and knowledge to prevent self-critical thoughts. Self-compassion requires that one does not harshly criticize the self in times of difficulty (Neff, 2003a). Also, Bao et al. (2015) obtained that mindful people have a better ability to regulate their emotions and make use of their emotions to motivate themselves, which enables them to perceive less stress. In university students’ higher mindfulness and self-compassion were also related to less perceived stress (Martínez-Rubio et al., 2023). Thus, it seems that mindfulness via the mentioned EI dimensions ensures a more emotionally balanced mindset needed to experience self-compassion rather than over-identification with negative experiences.

The result of partial mediation suggests that there may be also other mechanisms through which mindfulness may increase student’s self-compassion. Also, they point to the direct beneficial effect of mindfulness on self-compassion. Neff (2003a) theorized mindfulness as a necessary precursor to a self-compassionate response since mindfulness enables mental distancing from ongoing difficulties so that feelings of self-kindness and self-understanding can arise. Mental distancing, i.e., decentering reflects a shift in perspective associated with decreased attachment to one’s thoughts and emotions (Biehler & Naragon-Gainey, 2022; Brown et al., 2015). It is further posed that through decentering mindfulness may exert positive psychological outcomes, both directly and indirectly by mobilizing other psychological mechanisms, such as cognitive flexibility, values clarification, self-regulation, and exposure (Brown et al., 2015).

In this study, we theoretically posited that dimensions of EI precede self-compassion. However, it is also possible that at least some of the dimensions of EI have a bidirectional and circular relationship with self-compassion. For example, a higher level of self-compassion may lead to higher self-regulation, since self-compassion decreases stress (Poots & Cassidy, 2020) and self-regulation is better when a person is not under stress. Thus, it may well be that the relationship between self-regulation of emotion and self-compassion is circular.

Limitations and practical implications

Some limitations of this study should be addressed. First, the cross-sectional nature of the study does not allow us to draw any conclusions about the direction of causality in the associations observed. Further, longitudinal studies are required to reveal the dynamic reciprocal nature of all the study variables. Second, this study focused on EI as a trait. Since EI may be conceptualized also as ability, future studies may focus on such conceptualization of EI.

Per practical implications, since previous studies suggested that mindfulness, EI, and self-compassion can be trained (Nelis et al., 2011; Smeets et al., 2014; Tang et al., 2019), educational institutions may include knowledge about these concepts and offer training to students in order to further increase their self-compassion1).

There

Conclusions

Thismany studyresearch showedresults in the literature which deal with the digital literacy of first grade primary school students. However, the research results of first grade primary school students' self-evaluation agree with the results of Lazonder et al (2020) in the part which states that dimensionsdigital literacy skills are independent of EI, i.e., perception and understanding of emotion in self, use of emotion for self-motivating purpose and self-regulation, mediated the relationship between mindfulness and self-compassion, i.e., that higher mindfulness led to higher emotional intelligence, which in turn lead to higher self-compassion. These findings serve as the basis for directing greater attention of the educational process into the development of mindfulness and EI, especially dimensions of perception and understanding of emotion in self, use of emotion for self-motivating purpose and self-regulation, in order to promote students‘ self-compassion and, consequently, their readiness for the demands of the profession. gender.

Conclusion

Most of the respondents (over 87.5%) self-assess themselves as having acquired the required learning outcomes specified in the informatics curriculum for the first grade in the field of Digital Literacy and Communication. 

There are no statistically significant differences in digital literacy of first grade primary school students by their gender or by their place of residence. The statistically significant differences were observed only in two items that contribute to digital literacy: more female respondents know the names of computer parts and more respondents coming from urban places of residence know how to search the Internet.

From an early age, students are using the Internet and there is a need to educate them to use it safely and responsibly. It is important to include and continue to teach the subject of informatics (computer science) in the initial grades of elementary school not only as an optional but as a compulsory subject.

It is important to continue to develop the digital literacy of students at an early age so that they can use information and communication technology safely and responsibly and that they are ready for new technologies and new occupations. The goal is also to achieve the equal representation of female and male students in university STEM study programs. The study presented in this paper shows that, at this early age, there are still no statistically significant differences in respondents’ self-assessed digital literacy by gender. However, there is a need to encourage female students in STEM subjects, such as informatics/computer science, to achieve the goal of equal representation of female and male graduates in the STEM fields.

Limitations of the research

The collected data is respondents’ knowledge self-assessment. The authors are aware that the respondents could overestimate their assessment, especially at their current age of six or seven. Actual testing of students’ knowledge would probably get more precise data.

The sample size is 104 and the representativeness of the results is limited.

Funding

This research received no specific grant from any funding agency in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors.

Competing interests

The authors declare that they have no competing interests.

Statement on the first publication of the research results

The results of the research presented in this paper have not been published before.

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