Threshold concepts in Computer Science teaching
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Teaching (Today for) Tomorrow: Bridging the Gap between the Classroom and Reality 3rd International Scientific and Art Conference |
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| Section - Education for digital transformation | Paper number: 1 |
Category: Original scientific paper |
Abstract |
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Fundamental concepts underlie every scientific field. Among them, there are concepts that represent a turning point in the understanding of the field and whose understanding is a significant challenge for students. Such concepts are called threshold concepts. The In addition to the list of threshold concepts in computer science derived from the literature review, a Identifying threshold concepts can help guide learning and teaching. With a better understanding of the |
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Key words: |
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Introduction
ChildrenIn begintoday's digital society, in which we have grown up and are active members, it is clear that the integration of information technology within the educational system is becoming increasingly significant (Bognar, 2016). In the context of computer science, teachers face the dual challenge of teaching foundational knowledge and enabling students to useovercome digitalkey technologiesbarriers to understanding. These obstacles include threshold concepts— core ideas that represent a transformative points in learning. These concepts are not only fundamental, but also serve as a gateway to deeper understanding that often requires a significant shift in perspective to master.
Meyer and Land (2003) have identified the threshold concept in the field of education as a set of ideas that, once understood, become transformative but are initially challenging and unfamiliar. Regardless of whether we adopt a constructivist approach or another learning theory, threshold concepts represent points at awhich verystudents earlyare age:likely two-year-oldto toddlersencounter regularlylearning watchdifficulties. filmsTo further define threshold concepts, Meyer and videosLand state that they are integrative, as they show previously unknown ways of linking ideas; irreversible, as the new way of thinking becomes part of the learner once they have truly understood it; and listenboundary tomarkers, musicas onthey tablet computers (Ólafsson et al, 2014). Children's Internet use is generally over 85% fordefine the ageboundaries groupof beginning at six, rising to around 95% for older childrenpart (14or andall) older).of Onea studyset findsof ideas. An entire subject area may have its boundary marked by a single threshold concept, mastery of which indicates competence in that even 40% of 3 to 6-year-olds use the Internet at least once a week, predominantly with a tablet devicearea (ÓlafssonMeyer et& al,Land, 2014)2003).
Today'sDr. childrenTucker usehighlights digitalseveral devices,characteristics of threshold concepts and emphasizes five main characteristics: transformative, irreversible, integrative, troublesome, and bounded (SJSU School of Information, 2013).
Research on threshold concepts in computer science has highlighted certain concepts as transformative and challenging for students as they often require significant cognitive change. Among these concepts, object-oriented programming stands out due to its complexity and potential to enable deeper understanding and application in different areas of computer science (Boustedt et al., 2007). However, the concepts taught in primary school have not been the focus of such research, leaving a gap in the understanding of threshold concepts that younger students should overcome.
This paper examines the threshold concepts in computer science education, with a focus on primary school. The research aims to identify concepts that are particularly challenging for students and to distinguish those that can be considered threshold concepts based on their characteristics. Using the nominal group technique, primary school teachers were involved in a structured research process and threshold concepts were proposed on the basis of shared insights. By addressing this topic, this research aims to improve teaching practices and support learning and teaching, as by understanding these concepts, teachers can better address the obstacles students face and guide them towards understanding the key concepts.
Characteristics of threshold concepts in education
In this section, the following characteristics of threshold concepts are described according to Meyer & Land (2003): transformativeness, irreversibility, integrativeness, troublesomness, and boundedness.
Transformative is described and associated with events that leave a lasting impression and are unforgettable, such as tablets,passing smartphonesa driving test. The transformation of attitudes, values or understanding often represents a decisive point in our lives. This change not only shapes our identity, but also has a profound impact on our daily lives. Through this development, the new understanding gradually integrates into our biography and computers,becomes an inseparable part of who we are. This process does not happen immediately, but unfolds gradually and permeates all aspects of our lives. It is not just a matter of adopting a new attitude or a new value. Rather, this transformation becomes part of our inner being and shapes the way we perceive the world around us. Through this integration, the new understanding becomes a fundamental element of our identity and influences our thoughts, feelings and actions. This change does not occur in isolation, but has a profound impact on our relationships, our work and our life choices. The importance of such transformations lies in their ability to promote growth and development as individuals. They encourage us to look at things from andifferent earlyangles, age.which Radeskygives etus al.a (2020)broader report research results on the sampleview of 346life. parentsFurthermore, these changes often coincide with personal growth and guardiansmake ofus childrenstronger agedand 3more resilient to 5life's years where children were using tablets and smartphones to access applications such as YouTube, YouTube Kids, Internet browser, Quick Search Box or Siri, and streaming video services. 121 children (35%) had their own devices, and their average daily usage was 115 minutes (SD 115.1; range 0.20–632.5). challenges.
ItIrreversibility, is important to prepare children and young people to use information and communication technology safely and responsibly. Inin the era when Artificial Intelligence (AI) is having a growing influence on people’s everyday lives, it is important to acquire knowledge and skills to learn and work with the newest digital technologies and to be prepared for the future. This set of knowledge and skills is known as digital literacy.
“Digital literacy is the setcontext of knowledge, skills,stands attitudesfor a profound level of learning, where what we have mastered becomes an integral part of our intellectual repertoire. It is like riding a bike or swimming, where a learnt skill becomes inherent and valuesindelible. thatThrough enablethe childrenprocess toof confidentlyirreversibility, andknowledge autonomouslybecomes play, learn, socialize, prepare for work and participateimprinted in civicour action in digital environments. Children should be able to use and understand technology, to search for and manage information, communicate, collaborate, create and share content, build knowledge and solve problems safely, critically and ethically,memory in a way that resists forgetting, even in challenging situations. This phenomenon can be compared to riding a bike. As soon as we master a technique, it becomes part of our muscle memory. No matter how long we have not ridden a bike, when we do it again, the process naturally emerges from our subconscious. Similarly, irreversibility in learning means that once acquired, knowledge becomes a permanent skill that is appropriateactivated forregardless theirof age,a localprolonged languageperiod andof local culture” (Nascimbeni & Vosloo (UNICEF), (2019), p. 32). disuse.
InIntegrative learning means that what was previously hidden or not fully understood is made accessible in its context. This quality of learning has the Europeanpower Union,to digitallink literacyseparate concepts together so that they are brought together into a holistic understanding. Ideas that were once separate are now connected, creating a broader understanding that enriches individual perspectives. This integration process can be likened to putting together pieces of a jigsaw puzzle. Each individual piece represents a particular concept, and through integration, these individual pieces become an integral part of a larger, complete landing. Furthermore, integrativeness is definednot throughjust digitalabout competence.putting “Digitaldifferent competenceconcepts involvestogether, it goes a step further by creating an expanded understanding that enriches our perception of the confident,world criticalaround us. This dimension of integrativeness significantly influences the development of individual understanding. Ideas that have previously isolated now become part of a wider network of connections, leading to a richer and responsibledeeper useexperience of,of knowledge.
Troublesomeness, in learning can be associated and engagementdescribed with,with digitalcertain concepts that may seem counter-intuitive or unpleasant. However, it is essential to face these challenges in order to understand them. Often these concepts are associated with situations that cause discomfort or are counter-intuitive, and this discomfort may stem from misconceptions. Especially when solving problems in physics, beginners are often confronted with various misconceptions and contradictions. However, when they dedicate themselves to solving these challenges, they not only overcome their preconceptions but also reach a new level of understanding. Wrestling with counterintuitive ideas becomes a path to deeper understanding, and this process allows individuals to reach new heights in their learning eliminating underestimation in the process.
Boundedness implies the presence of definitive boundaries. These boundaries serve as transitions between different conceptual areas, defining boundaries to other thresholds and introducing us to new areas of understanding. In a particular subject area, specialized terminology takes on a new meaning defined precisely by these boundaries. Boundedness implies not only the presence of endpoints, but also the possibility of exploring and expanding these boundaries to deepen our understanding and discover new meanings that emerge within these defined boundaries (Mayer and Land, 2003), (SJSU School of Information, 2013).
Threshold concepts in computer science
The research on threshold concepts in computer science conducted by Boustedt et al. (2007) focused on identifying terms that could correspond to threshold concepts and validating them with students, followed by checking whether the criteria for threshold concepts are met. At the Conference on Innovations in Computer Science Education in June 2005, 33 computer science experts from nine countries were surveyed to select terms that met the criteria for threshold concepts. In November 2005, a similar study was conducted at a conference on computer science in Finland, the results of which focused on the „hard to learn” aspects of threshold concepts (McCartney and Sanders, 2005). Subsequent studies at different universities in several countries showed that students identified „control structures”, „sequential thinking”, „parameters”, „objects” and „memory models” as threshold concepts. Object-oriented technologies and pointers were selected for learning,in-depth atanalysis as they fully met all the criteria for threshold concepts (Boustedt et al., 2007).
Object-oriented programming (OOP) is based on the idea that a program consists of objects that represent interconnected parts of a solution, in contrast to the classic procedural model, which views a program as a sequence of instructions. OOP enables more efficient code organization and simplifies the maintenance and scaling of large programs. It is used in languages such as Java and Python, while the procedural model is suitable for languages such as C and Pascal (Jovanović, 2012). Although OOP offers numerous advantages, students often report difficulties in learning it, especially with basic concepts such as classes and objects. Research among first-year university students shows that many have experienced OOP as a challenge that requires rethinking. Nevertheless, most students emphasize that mastering OOP has helped them to understand more complex programming concepts and enabled them to transfer the skills learned to other areas, such as software engineering, demonstrating the transformative nature of OOP. Such experiences show that although the learning process is long and complex, it provides long-term benefits and enables students to apply their knowledge in different contexts (Boustedt et al., 2007).
Pointers have been identified as a threshold concept in computer science because their understanding is often challenging for students, especially when they are used as parameters in programs. Students reported difficulty connecting abstract theory to the practical application of pointers. One student described having difficulty understanding pointers until he realized that they simply represent a specific memory location, which made the concept clearer. Having mastered pointers, students began to apply this knowledge in broader contexts such as hardware and operating systems by using pointers in practical work, and for participationexample in society.assembly Itlanguage. includesUnderstanding informationpointers enabled them to apply objects and datareferences literacy,more communicationsuccessfully andin collaboration,programming, media literacy, digital content creation (including programming), safety (including digital well-being and competences relatedleading to cybersecurity)greater confidence in tackling more complex computing problems (Boustedt et al., intellectual property related questions, problem solving and critical thinking” (European Union, 2019, p. 10)2007).
DigitalRecent competenceresearch isby oneKallia and Sentance (2020) provides additional insights in the context of functions. Their study emphasises the keytransformative competencesand integrative nature of concepts such as „parameters”, „parameter passing”, „return values”. These concepts were found to be challenging for lifelongsecondary learningschool (European Union, 2019, p. 5): Literacy competence, Multilingual competence, Mathematical competencestudents and competencetheir inmastery science,facilitates technologydeeper understanding and engineering,integration Digitalof competence,knowledge Personal,across socialprogramming topics. The authors identified „procedural decomposition” as a potential threshold skill requiring extensive practice to bridge theoretical understanding and learning to learn competence, Citizenship competence, Entrepreneurship competence, Cultural awareness and expression competence.
More than one in five young people fail to reach a basic level of digital skills across the European Union (European Commission, 2020b). Providing schooling in computing equips young people with a solid comprehension of the digital realm. Initiating students into computing early on and employing inventive and engaging teaching methods across both formal and informal settings, aids in building problem-solving, creativity, and teamwork skills. Furthermore, it nurtures enthusiasm for STEM fields and potential careers, simultaneously addressing gender stereotypes. Endeavours to enhance computing education's quality and inclusivity can significantly influence the enrolment of female students in IT-related higher education programs and subsequently their participation in digital professions across various economic sectors (European Commission, 2020a).application.
The Digitalstudy Educationconducted Actionby PlanMcSkimming, Mackay & Decker (2021-2027)2023) hasidentified two strategicthreshold prioritiesconcepts for intermediate computer science students: „algorithmic runtime” and „memory management”, emphasizing the challenges and transformative understanding associated with these concepts. The research by Govender & Olugbara (European Commission, 2020b):
-2022) toreflected fosteron athreshold high-performingconcepts digitalfor educationdeveloping ecosystem, and
- to enhance digitalprogramming skills in first-year information technology students, providing insights into supporting teaching strategies and competencesidentified procedures and functions and programming constructs (such as selection, iteration, and variable manipulation) as critical threshold concepts for theteaching digitalcomputer age.programming to first-year IT students.
TheThese latterstudies includeshighlight the followingongoing activities:
-in support the provision of basic digital skillsunderstanding and competencesaddressing fromthreshold anconcepts earlyto age:
- digital literacy, including management of information overload and recognising disinformation
- computing (informatics orenhance computer science)science education
- good knowledge and understanding of data-intensive technologies, such as AI
- boost advanced digital skills: enhancing the number of digital specialists and girls and women in digital studies and careers.
One of the Action Plan activities is to encourage female participation in STEM. Female students generally perform better than male students in the Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA) and International Computer and Information Literacy Study (ICILS) international skills tests. However, only one in three STEM graduates is a woman (European Commission, 2020a).
Digital literacy and communication include knowing the possibilities of hardware and software solutions and developing cooperation and communication skills in an online environment. Knowledge of the possibilities of current technology and computer programs is a prerequisite for their proper selection and effective and innovative application in various fields. It is necessary to develop digital literacy from an early age and throughout schooling so that students are prepared for life and work in a digital society (Ministry of Science and Education, 2018).
According to the same source, after the first year of studying the subject Informatics in the field of Digital Literacy and Communication, the students should acquire the following learning outcomes:
- C.1.1 with the support of the teacher student uses the proposed programs and digital educational content and
- C.1.2 with the support of the teacher student creates simple digital content with very simple actions.
Digital literacy is essential to learn, work and succeed in today’s digital society and it is important to prepare children and young people to use information and communication technology safely and responsibly from an early age.education.
Methodology
The main aim of this paper is to propose threshold concepts for computer science taught in primary school. The basic methodology of the research was the nominal group technique (NGT), which is suitable for gaining a deeper insight into the participants' perception and understanding of threshold concepts. The nominal group technique (NGT) was found to be a very effective method for promoting critical thinking through discussions that involve a small number of participants, provide clear and focused instructions and allow for constructive feedback. NGT fulfils all these criteria while ensuring the full participation of all group members, which is especially useful in an educational context.
NGT is widely used in various disciplines, e.g. medicine, information technology, politics, management and education, where it serves as a method for evaluated discussions (Macphail, 2001). In education, NGT is used in the design and evaluation of curricula and as a pedagogical method that encourages active participation (Chapple & Murphy, 1996). Studies have shown that NGT increases participant’s productivity and problem-solving skills through structured discussions (Madar, 1982).
AimsProcedure
The researchapplication aimsprocess of NGT consisted of six steps, beginning with an oral presentation that covered the definitions and examples provided. A presentation was prepared, which included precise definitions of threshold concepts, along with examples of threshold concepts with explanations according to exploretheir characteristics. For demonstrating threshold concepts, „looping” and subprograms were selected as examples that fully align with the digitalthreshold literacyconcept. Simultaneously, as an example of firsta gradedemanding primaryconcept, schoolrecursion studentswas analyzed and possibleidentified differencesas bya genderconcept that requires additional understanding but is not a necessary prerequisite for further learning in programming.
The second step, silent idea generation, required participants to individually reflect on and bywrite down their thoughts regarding threshold concepts. They completed a questionnaire that required them to try to identify concepts and answer whether these concepts are fundamental, demanding, and whether they meet the characteristics of threshold concepts.
The third step, idea discussion, took place after individual reflections. Participants were divided into smaller groups with 4 to 7 participants to further deepen their understanding and discuss the proposed threshold concepts. Through constructive discussion, participants contributed to a deeper understanding of residencethe (urbanconcepts and their application in computer science education. In this group decision-making phase, each group selected one or rural).more concepts that they believed met all the characteristics of threshold concepts.
To obtain clear results and rank the proposed threshold concepts, voting was conducted via the online platform Padlet. After the voting and reviewing of the results, conclusions were drawn, and potential threshold concepts were identified. Lastly, the report with a summary of the procedure, decisions, and final results was written.
Participants
Hypotheses
H1: There is no statistically significant difference in the self-assessed digital literacy of first grade primary school students by gender.
It is expected that the respondents will self-assess their digital literacy equally regardless of their gender (female and male). Female students generally perform better than male students in the Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA) and International Computer and Information Literacy Study (ICILS) international skills tests. However, only one in three STEM graduates is a woman (European Commission, 2020). The research results can show whether there are differences in the digital literacy of female and male students already at this early age.
H2: There is no statistically significant difference in the self-assessed digital literacy of first grade primary school students by their place of residence.
It is expected that the respondents will self-assess their digital literacy equally regardless of their place of residence (rural and urban). There is a possibility that the availability of optional subjects of informatics in urban and rural schools is not the same and that Internet connectivity in schools and at home is not the same in rural and urban areas. These two factors, the availability of optional subjects of informatics and Internet connectivity, can influence the students’ digital literacy.
H3: More than 80% of students use the Internet.
From an early age, children are exposed to the Internet through information and communication technology such as smartphones, tablets, laptops and desktop computers and know how to use it to search the Internet. It is expected that more than 80% of students use the Internet.
Sample
The research sample consistsparticipants of 104the firstresearch gradewere primary school studentsteachers fromof fourcomputer primary schools and two primary district schoolsscience (districtN=53) schoolwho in Croatian: područna škola) from northwestern Croatiaparticipated in the springactivities organized by the Professional Council of 2023.Computer ThereScience areTeachers 48of femalePrimorje-Gorski (46.2%)Kotar County at Vežica Primary School in Rijeka in February 2024.
In addition to the questions on threshold concepts, participants were asked to provide demographic data, including their educational profile, professional experience and 56the malesubjects (53.8%)they studentsteach. Table 1 shows the age and gender of the participants. The participants in the sample.survey Therehave a wide age range, from 24 to 63 years, with an average age of 39 years. This age diversity suggests that participants are 53at studentsdifferent (51.0%) from urban places of residence and 51 students (49.0%) from rural places of residence. There are 98 students (94.2%) who attend the optional subject of informaticsstages in thetheir firstcareers, grade,which andcould 6influence studentstheir doresponses notgiven attendtheir (5.8%)varied (Tableteaching 1).experience.
Table 1
Respondents’Age demographicof datathe participants
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Number of |
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6 |
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45-54 |
19 |
15 |
3 |
1 |
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55+ |
3 |
2 |
1 |
0 |
Chart 1 Distribution of participants by gender All participants have a high level of education and Table 2 0-9 10 6 0 20-29 11 9 1 1 30+ 2 1 Participants vary in the combination of subjects they teach, including computer science, mathematics, English, physics and technical education what can be seen in Table 3. Table 3 Number of participants by job position Job Position Number of Participants Teacher of Computer Science and Mathematics Teacher of Computer Science and Technical Culture 1 Results The results collected through the survey provide insight into opinions of computer science teachers regarding the threshold concepts. Within the stage of silent idea generation, the participants highlighted several key fundamental concepts in computer science education, including „Branching”, „Functions”, „HTML”, „File Storage”, „Addressing” and „Logical Conditions”, which were recognized as essential for understanding computer science. „Branching Algorithm” was marked as a fundamental concept by 15 participants, while „Functions” and „Logical Conditions” received 13 votes. „HTML” and „File Storage” were also identified as fundamental by 11 participants, and „Addressing” was also ranked highly. Challenging concepts that represent learning obstacles include „Branching”, „Database Relations” and „File Storage”, which require additional attention and resources for adequate understanding. The interconnection of concepts was also important, and the participants recognized that „Branching”, „Functions”, „Logical Conditions”, „HTML” and „File Storage” are connected, meaning that mastering these concepts facilitates understanding of other aspects of computer science. The transformative nature of concepts, which indicates their potential to lead to deeper understanding, was also highlighted for „Branching”, „Functions”, „HTML” and „Logical Conditions”, while the irreversibility of these concepts was considered high, meaning that students rarely forget these terms once they have mastered them. Concepts such as „Database Relations” and „Branching“ were marked as bounded, meaning that their understanding may vary among students, requiring continuous repetition. Some concepts, such as „Attributes”, „Database”, „File”, „Elements in Canva”, „Internet”, „Output Devices”, „Copying” and „References in Word”, were not recognized as fundamental or challenging by most participants, indicating their lower importance in basic computer science education. During the idea discussion phase, the participants concluded that some concepts, such as „Branching” and „Logical Conditions”, could be combined because they are interconnected, and that „Data Organization” and „File Storage” could also be merged, as data organization is key to understanding the process of file storage. After the discussion phase, we move on to the voting phase. In order to obtain clear results and ranking of the proposed threshold concepts, a voting was conducted through the online platform Padlet. In the following table, the proposed threshold concepts and the voting results for each proposed concept can be seen. Because some teachers were undecided on certain concepts, the total number of votes differs per concept and is less than 53. Table 4 Proposed threshold concepts N YES NO Logical conditions 43 42 1 Cell addressing (in spreadsheet) 42 40 2 Variables 43 39 4 Data organization (storage) 45 39 6 Flowchart 41 35 6 31 39 42 15 Discussion The results of the survey provide several important insights into primary school IT teachers’ views on threshold concepts. Concepts such as „logical conditions”, „cell addressing”, „variables”, and „data organization” received strong support, indicating their importance for computer science teaching. The high consensus on „logical conditions” (42 out of 43 participants who voted for this concept) may reflect its fundamental role in programming, particularly in helping students understand decision-making in algorithms. This strong support suggests that teachers view it as a prerequisite for grasping more advanced programming concepts. In contrast, the slightly lower support for the concept of „flowchart” (35 votes) may indicate variability in how teachers integrate visual algorithm representation into their teaching practices. While flowcharts are valuable for structuring and planning code, some teachers may rely on alternative methods, such as pseudocode, to introduce these skills. The strong support for „cell addressing” (40 votes) highlights its relevance not only for spreadsheet data management but also for broader applications like data analysis. This result underscores the increasing emphasis on data literacy in primary education, aligning with the growing importance of data science skills. However, it also raises questions about whether teachers feel adequately equipped to teach these skills effectively. These findings suggest that while core programming concepts such as „logical conditions” and „variables” are well-established in the curriculum, there is room to explore how concepts like „data organization” and „flowcharts” can be better integrated. Future research might investigate how these concepts are taught in practice and the challenges teachers face in developing student’s understanding of them. Conclusions The topic of threshold concepts represents not only a challenge, but also an opportunity for innovation in computer science teaching. Clearly defined threshold concepts provide a foundation for high-quality education and promote the development of the skills required in the digital age. Methodologies like the nominal group technique allow structured dialogue among teachers, creating a space for exchanging experiences and finding common solutions to teaching challenges. Based on the research conducted using the nominal group technique with primary school teachers the following threshold concepts in computer science education have been proposed: logical conditions, cell addressing (in spreadsheet), flowcharts, data organization, and variables. These concepts have been highlighted as transformative points that enable deeper understanding of the subject matter and progress for students. In the future work, these proposals will be validated through further research involving subject-matter experts, who will contribute to developing a solid rationale confirming that these concepts have the defining characteristics of threshold concepts. The integration of educational games has considerable potential to support students in mastering complex topics while increasing their engagement and motivation in the learning process. Following this validation, game-based learning activities will therefore be designed to facilitate student’s acquisition of these concepts. Acknowledgment The research has been funded by the Erasmus+ Programme of the European Union, KA220-SCH - Cooperation partnerships in school education, under the project “Science&Math educational games from preschool to university” (023- 1-HR01-KA220-SCH-000165485). Literature Boustedt, J., Eckerdal, A., McCartney, R., Moström, J. E., Ratcliffe, M., Sanders, K., & Zander, C. (2007). Threshold concepts in computer science: do they exist and are they useful? ACM Sigcse Bulletin, 39(1), 504-508. Breidenbach, D., Dubinsky, E., Hawks, J., & Nichols, D. (1992). Development of the Gruić, I. (2005). Entering the online: Ministarstvo znanosti i obrazovanja Ministarstvo znanosti i obrazovanja [ Olugbara, Thamotharan P. Govender1 Oludayo O. “Reflection on Threshold Concepts for Developing Computer Programming Skills of Resnick, M., Maloney, J., Monroy-Hernández, A., Rusk, N., Eastmond, E., Brennan, K., ... & Kafai, Y. (2009). Scratch: programming for all. Communications of the SJSU School of Vinner,
InstrumentsSinceThe themajority respondentsof participants were women, a smaller number were agedmen six(Chart 1). One respondent did not specify their gender.seven,work theas datacomputer gatheringscience methodteachers usedat wasprimary a simple questionnaire containing eleven items written on paperschools (Table 2). The average length of time spent in the teaching profession is around 10 years. A total of 33 participants have between 0 and 9 years of professional experience, 7 participants have between 10 and 19 years of professional experience, 11 participants have between 20 and 29 years of professional experience, and 2 participants have more than 30 years of professional experience.QuestionnaireParticipants‘ itemswork withexperience answer options
No.Work experience
ItemNumber of participants
Item typeF
Answer options
1M
Respondent’s gender
Multiple choice
Female / MaleOthers
2
Respondent’s place of residence
Multiple choice
Rural / Urban
3
I attend the optional subject of informatics in the first grade
Statement - multiple choice
Yes / No
4
I have a computer at home (yes/no)
Statement - multiple choice
Yes / No
5
I always ask parents or guardians for permission to use a computer (yes/no)
Statement - multiple choice
Yes / No
6
I know how to turn on/off the computer (yes/no)
Statement - multiple choice
Yes / No
7
I know the names of the computer parts (yes/no)
Statement - multiple choice
Yes / No
8
I know how to write a text using a computer (yes/no)
Statement - multiple choice
Yes / No
I know how to make a drawing using a computer (yes/no)33
Statement - multiple choice23
Yes / No
I know how to search the Internet (Google, YouTube) (yes/no)
Statement - multiple choice
Yes / No0
1110-19
I understand and apply rules of conduct on the Internet (yes/no)
Statement - multiple choice
Yes / No
The first two items dealt with students’ gender and the place of residence. The other nine items were statements concerning attending the optional subject of informatics, having the computer at home, asking parents or guardians for permission to use computers, knowledge of recognizing the computer parts, knowledge of the use of computer hardware and software to perform simple tasks such as turning on or off computers, writing and editing texts, make drawings, searching the Internet, and understanding and applying rules of conduct on the Internet. The students could answer if they agree or disagree with the statement with simple dichotomous options: yes or no.
The statements were chosen according to the curriculum of the optional subject Informatics and its learning outcomes in the first grade of primary school in Croatia (Ministry of Science and Education, 2018). The items of the questionnaire were adapted to the target group.
Procedure
The survey was implemented using the guidelines of the Ethical Code of Research with Children (National Ethics Committee for Research with Children, 2020).
The survey took place in two counties of northwestern Croatia from March to May 2023. The respondents were students of four primary schools, of which two are in urban and the other two in rural areas. The first author of this paper provided assistance and explanations to the respondents when they were filling out the questionnaire.
The chi-squared test is used to explore the statistically significant differences between students according to their gender and their place of residence (urban and rural).
The statistical software GNU PSPP 1.4.1 was used in the data processing.
Results
Table 3 shows the statements and the number of respondents’ responses (whether they agree with a specific statement or not). There is a total number of responses and there are responses by gender. In the next columns are the results of chi-squared tests (χ2, df, p).
Table 3.
Number of students’ responses by item and gender
Total
Male
Female
No.
Item
Yes
No
Yes
No
Yes
No
χ2
df
p
1
I attend the optional subject of informatics in the first grade
987
541
44
4
0.381
0.5380
2Teacher of Computer Science
I39haveacomputer
at
home
9111
13251
of 5Computer and 40English 8
0.80
0.372PROPOSED CONCEPTS
3Relations (databases)
I always ask parents or guardians for permission to use a computer
7342
3411
22HTML and similar languages
929
4.27
1
0.03910
4
I know how to turn on/off the computer
92
12
50
6account
624
0.00
1
1.00018
5Personal data protection
I know the names of the computer parts
93
11
46
10
47
1
5.23
1
0.022
6
I know how to write a text using a computer
91
13
48
8
43
5
0.09
1
0.766
7
I know how to make a drawing using a computer
98
6
51
5
47
1
1.15
1
0.284
8
I know how to search the Internet (Google, YouTube)
98
6
52
4
46
2
0.05
1
0.820
9
I understand and apply rules of conduct on the Internet
95
9
51
5
44
4
0.00
1
1.000
Most of the respondents (98 out of 104, 94.2%) attend the optional subject of informatics in the first grade and there is no statistically significant difference by gender (χ2= 0.38, df=1, p=0.538).
Most of the respondents (91 out of 104, 87.5%) have a computer at home and there is no statistically significant difference by gender (χ2= 0.80, df=1, p=0.372).
Most of the respondents (73 out of 104, 70.2%) always ask parents or guardians for permission to use a computer and there is a statistically significant difference by gender (χ2= 4.27, df=1, p=0.039). There are more female respondents (81.3%) than male respondents (60.7%) who ask their parents or guardians for permission to use the computer.
Most of the respondents (92 out of 104, 88.5%) know how to turn on and off computers and there is no statistically significant difference by gender (χ2= 0.00, df=1, p=1.000).
Most of the respondents (93 out of 104, 89.4%) know the names of the computer parts and there is a statistically significant difference by gender (χ2= 5.23, df=1, p=0.022). There are more female respondents (97.9%) than male respondents (81.1%) who know the names of computer parts.
Most of the respondents (91 out of 104, 87,5%) know how to write a text using a computer and there is no statistically significant difference by gender (χ2= 0.09, df=1, p=0.766).
Most of the respondents (98 out of 104, 94.2%) know how to make a drawing using a computer and there is no statistically significant difference by gender (χ2= 1.15, df=1, p=0.284).
Most of the respondents (98 out of 104, 94.2%) know how to search the Internet (Google, YouTube) and there is no statistically significant difference by gender (χ2= 0.05, df=1, p=0.820).
Most of the respondents (95 out of 104, 91.3%) understand and apply the rules of conduct on the Internet and there is no statistically significant difference by gender (χ2= 0.00, df=1, p=1.000).
Table 4 shows the statements and the number of respondents’ responses (if they agree with a specific statement or not) by the place of residence. In the next columns are the results of chi-squared tests (χ2, df, p).
Table 4.
Number of students’ responses by item and the place of residence
Rural
Urban
No.
Item
Yes
No
Yes
No
χ2
df
p
1
I attend the optional subject of informatics in the first grade
50
1
48
5
1.47
1
0.225
2
I have a computer at home
45
6
46
7
0.00
1
1.000
3
I always ask parents or guardians for permission to use a computer
3642
37
16
0.00
1
1.000
4
I know how to turn on/off the computer
44
7
48
5
0.14
1
0.706
5
I know the names of the computer parts
45
6
48
5
0.00
1
0.946
6
I know how to write a text using a computer
42
9
49
4
1.59
1
0.208
7
I know how to make a drawing using a computer
49
2
49
4
0.14
1
0.710
8
I know how to search the Internet (Google, YouTube)
45
6
53
0
4.63
1
0.031
9
I understand and apply rules of conduct on the Internet
44
7
51
2
2.12
1
0.14527
WhenBy analyzing the placevoting results, the list of residencethreshold isconcepts was proposed based on input from participants, highlighting those that clearly received higher support as threshold concepts in computer science education. „Logical conditions” received an exceptionally high number of votes, with 42 votes „YES” and only one vote „NO”. „Cell addressing (in spreadsheet)” also received a large number of votes, with 40 votes „YES” and only two votes „NO”. „Flowchart” received 35 votes „YES” and only 6 votes „NO.” „Data organization(storage)” received 39 votes „YES” and 6 votes „NO”. „Variables”, although not receiving unanimous support, can be considered thena therethreshold isconcept no statistically significant difference between rural and urban respondents except ingiven the itempredominant “I know how to search the Internet” where there is a statistically significant difference (χ2= 4.63, df=1, p=0.031). There are more urban respondents (100.0%) than rural respondents (88.2%) who know how to search the Internet (Google, YouTube).
The research results show that most of the respondents (over 87.5%) self-assess themselves as having acquired the required learning outcomes specified in the informatics curriculum for the first grade in the field of Digital Literacy and Communication: 88.5% know how to turn on/off computers, 89.4% know the names of the computer parts, 87.5% know how to write a text using a computer, 94.2% know how to make a drawing using a computer, 94.2% know how to use the Internet, and 91.3% understand and apply the rules of conduct on the Internet. 87.5% have computers at home and 92.3% of the respondents attended the optional subject of informatics.support.ConfirmationBognar, B. (2016). Teorijska polazišta e-učenja. Croatian Journal of Education: Hrvatski časopis za odgoj i obrazovanje, 18(1), 225-256. Available online: https://hrcak.srce.hr/file/229424, accessed 28.12.2023.hypothesesH1conception statesof thatfunction. thereEducational is no statistically significant differencestudies in themathematics, self-assessed23(3), digital literacy of first grade primary school students by gender (female and male).247-285.ThereCELatElon, isCenter nofor statisticallyEngaged significantLearning. difference(2013, inSeptember 18). Decoding the following items that contribute to the digital literacy of first grade primary school students:
- I know how to turn on/off the computer
- I know how to write a text using a computer
- I know how to make a drawing using a computer
- I know how to search the Internet (Google, YouTube)
- I understanddisciplines and applythreshold rulesconcepts. ofAccessed conductDecember on10, the2023, Internet.Available online: https://youtu.be/Wqe_kKFoOq4.AFalkner, statisticallyN. significantJ. differenceG., isVivian, observedR. onlyJ., & Falkner, K. E. (2013). Computer Science Education: The First Threshold Concept. 2013 Learning and Teaching in theComputing itemand “IEngineering. knowMacau: Macao, pp. 39-46. Available online: https://doi.org/10.1109/LaTiCE.2013.32.namesstory labyrinth. An Investigation of the computerEffects parts”of where there are more female respondents (97.9%) than male respondents (81.1%) who knowPlacing the namesParticipants in Different Actantial Positions within the Dramatic World Created by a Theatre in Education Programme. [Doctoral disertation or Master’s thesis]. Birmingham: Faculty of computerEducation partsUniversity (χ2=of 5.23,Central df=1,England p=0.022).in Birmingham.TheHoić-Božić, hypothesisN., H1& isHolenko confirmed.Dlab, M. (2021). Uvod u e-učenje: obrazovni izazovi digitalnog doba. Rijeka: Sveučilište u Rijeci, Odjel za informatiku.H2Jovanović, states that there is no significant difference in the self-assessed digital literacy of first grade primary school students by their place of residenceN. (rural2012). andObjektno urbanorijentisano areas).programiranje. Kruševac: SIGRAF, Visoka poslovna škola.ThereKallia, isM., no& statisticallySentance, significantS. difference(2021). Threshold concepts, conceptions and skills: Teachers' experiences with students' engagement in thefunctions. following items that contribute to the digital literacyJournal of primaryComputer schoolAssisted first-gradeLearning, students:- I know how to turn on/off the computer
- I know the names of the computer parts
- I know how to write a text using a computer
- I know how to make a drawing using a computer
- I understand and apply rules of conduct on the Internet.411-428.AKlafki, statisticallyW., significantSchulz, differenceW., isCube, observedF., onlyMoller, inC., theWinkel, itemR., “I& knowBlankertz, how to search the InternetH. (Google, YouTube)” where there are more urban respondents (100.0%) than rural respondents (88.2%) who know how to search the Internet (χ2= 4.63, df=1, p=0.031)1992). Didaktičke teorije. Zagreb: Educa.TheKyriacou, hypothesisC. H2(1995). isNastavna confirmed.umijeća: Metodički pristup za uspješno podučavanje i učenje. Zagreb: Educa.H3Macphail, statesA. that(2001). moreNominal thangroup 80%technique: ofA studentsuseful usemethod thefor Internet.working with young people. British Educational Research Journal, 27(2), 161-170. Accessed May 1, 2024, Available online: https://doi.org/10.1080/01411920120037117.98Madar, out of 104D. (94.2%)1982). respondentsUsing self-assessnominal themselvesgroup as they know howtechnique to searchfoster theproductive Internet. The hypothesis H3 is confirmed.
The researchbehavior in thisgroup paperdiscussions. usesTeaching respondents’Political self-assessedScience, data related to their digital competence. The respondents’ age is six or seven so there is a possibility that they do not understand the questionnaire statements and/or cannot self-assess their knowledge. However, they could get guidance and help from a researcher who was present when they filled out the questionnaire. The questionnaire items were very simple and dichotomous.
It is difficult to get valid overviews of skills through questionnaires. The main reason for this is that respondents tend to overestimate themselves, especially when it comes to technical skills (Ala-Mutka, 2011).
García-Vandewalle et al. (2021) warn that evaluating subjectivity may have limitations. The respondents’ subjectivity regarding their level of knowledge is one of the main issues with self-assessment. However, self-assessment is still a valid tool for ascertaining how students perceive their learning and enables the detection of their strengths and weaknesses.
Godaert et al. (2022) analysed 14 studies concerning the assessment of students’ digital competences in primary school. The studies used various scoring systems: three were dichotomous (1=correct; 0=incorrect)9(4), four185-189. wereAccessed 5-pointMay Likert1, scale,2024, oneAvailable was a 7-point Likert scale, one scoring rubric (0-2 point, 0-5 points), four combined, and one not mentioned. At least five of them were using self-reported data collection. The age of the target population in the studies was mostly in the range of 9 to 13. Only one study, Jun et al (2014), included the first grade of primary school respondents of age 6.
Merritt et al. (2005) report that there were differences in respondents’ self-reported and actual digital literacy. They asked 55 students to self-report their computer literacy and later they were tested in their digital literacy. Research results show that there is a statistically significant difference between self-reported (N=55, M=2.164, SD=0.788) and actual tested (N=55, M=1.873, SD=0.610) levels of digital literacy.
Porat et al. (2018) report on digital literacy research results on 280 junior-high-school students where they compared their perceived digital literacy competencies and their actual performance in relevant digital tasks. Participants expressed high confidence in their digital literacy and overestimated their actual tested competence.
However, Tzafilkou et al (2022) developed and validated students’ digital competence scale based on self-reported data.
Asil et al (2014) used the 5-point Likert scale to collect data on measuring computer attitudes of young students in three separate factors: perceived ease of use, affect towards computers and perceived usefulness.
Hernández-Marín (2024) concludes that attitude scales have been consolidated as valuable elements in educational evaluation, allowing participants' perceptions of their learning to be satisfactorily captured. Self-assessment turns out to be an exceptionally effective method for measuring attitudes. However, to gain more perspective, complete and accurate learning, it is necessary to complement the attitude scales with other methods.
In their three-year longitudinal study, Lazonder et al (2020) followed the digital literacy progress of 151 fifth and sixth graders in their skills to collect, create, transform, and safely use digital information. They report that the children made the most progress in their ability to collect information. However, their capacity for generating information showed the smallest enhancement. “Development of most skills was moderately related, and it was independent of gender, grade level, migration background, and improvements in reading comprehension and maths. Children's socioeconomic status was weakly associated with the ability to collect and safely use information, but not with the other two digital literacy skills” (Lazonder et al, 2020, p. 1).
There are not many research results in the literature which deal with the digital literacy of first grade primary school students. However, the research results of first grade primary school students' self-evaluation agree with the results of Lazonder et al (2020) in the part which states that digital literacy skills are independent of gender.
Conclusion
Most of the respondents (over 87.5%) self-assess themselves as having acquired the required learning outcomes specified in the informatics curriculum for the first grade in the field of Digital Literacy and Communication.
There are no statistically significant differences in digital literacy of first grade primary school students by their gender or by their place of residence. The statistically significant differences were observed only in two items that contribute to digital literacy: more female respondents know the names of computer parts and more respondents coming from urban places of residence know how to search the Internet.
From an early age, students are using the Internet and there is a need to educate them to use it safely and responsibly. It is important to include and continue to teach the subject of informatics (computer science) in the initial grades of elementary school not only as an optional but as a compulsory subject.
It is important to continue to develop the digital literacy of students at an early age so that they can use information and communication technology safely and responsibly and that they are ready for new technologies and new occupations. The goal is also to achieve the equal representation of female and male students in university STEM study programs. The study presented in this paper shows that, at this early age, there are still no statistically significant differences in respondents’ self-assessed digital literacy by gender. However, there is a need to encourage female students in STEM subjects, such as informatics/computer science, to achieve the goal of equal representation of female and male graduates in the STEM fields.
Limitations of the research
The collected data is respondents’ knowledge self-assessment. The authors are aware that the respondents could overestimate their assessment, especially at their current age of six or seven. Actual testing of students’ knowledge would probably get more precise data.
The sample size is 104 and the representativeness of the results is limited.
Funding
This research received no specific grant from any funding agency in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors.
Competing interests
Statement on the first publication of the research results
The results of the research presented in this paper have not been published before.
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Odgoj danas za sutra:
Premošćivanje jaza između učionice i realnosti
3. međunarodna znanstvena i umjetnička konferencija Učiteljskoga fakulteta Sveučilišta u Zagrebu Suvremene teme u odgoju i obrazovanju – STOO4 u suradnji s Hrvatskom akademijom znanosti i umjetnosti
Digitalna pismenost učenica i učenika prvih razreda osnovne škole
Sažetak
Cilj istraživanja prikazanog u ovom radu je istražiti digitalnu pismenost učenica i učenika prvih razreda osnovne škole. Uzorak istraživanja čine 104 učenica i učenika iz sjeverozapadne Hrvatsk. Oni su pozvani da ispune anketni upitnik za samoprocjenu svojeg znanja koji se sastoji od jedanaest čestica koje uključuju izjave o njihovom spolu, mjestu stanovanja (ruralno ili urbano) te jednostavne izjave da/ne o poznavanju korištenja računalnog hardvera i softvera. Rezultati istraživanja pokazuju statistički značajnu razliku u traženju dopuštenja roditelja ili skrbnika za korištenje računala prema spolu (χ2=4,27, df=1, p=0,039). Više je ispitanica (81,3%) nego ispitanika (60,7%) koji od roditelja ili skrbnika traže dopuštenje za korištenje računala. Većina ispitanica i ispitanika (88,5%) zna uključiti/isključiti računala, 87,5% ispitanica i ispitanika zna napisati tekst pomoću računala i 94,2% ispitanica i ispitanika zna napraviti crtež pomoću računala. Internet zna koristiti 94,2% ispitanica i ispitanika te postoji statistički značajna razlika prema mjestu stanovanja (χ2=4,63, df=1, p=0,031). Više je ispitanica i ispitanika iz gradova (100,0%) nego ispitanica i ispitanika iz sela (88,2%) koji znaju pretraživati internet. Većina ispitanica i ispitanika (91,3%) razumije i primjenjuje pravila ponašanja na internetu. Većina ispitanica i ispitanika (87,5%) procjenjuje se da su stekli ishode učenja navedene u kurikulumu nastavnog predmeta informatike.
Ključne riječi:
digitalna kompetencija; nastavni plan i program informatike; osnovno obrazovanje
