The role of mindfulness and emotional intelligence in self-compassion

Note. β = standardized beta coefficients; ^*p < .05; ^**p < .01.

Mediation analysis

The results of the mediation analyses with EI dimensions of SEA, ROE and UOE, as parallel mediators between mindfulness and self-compassion are displayed in Table 3 and Figure 1. In line with Hypothesis 4, dimensions of EI mediated the relationship between mindfulness and self-compassion. In regard to Research Question 2, mediation analysis showed a partial mediation of mindfulness on self-compassion through the three EI dimensions, i.e., SEA (2010)2a), ROE (2c) and UOE (2d) that acted as parallel mediators. The direct relation between mindfulness and self-compassion remained significant indicating the mediation was partial. Higher mindfulness fosters students’ self-compassion both directly, and indirectly via higher SEA, ROE and UOE. All mediators had a significant indirect effect on self-compassion. Although, UOE had the highest ratio of indirect to total effect (.19), specific indirect effect contrast analysis showed that the indirect effect of specific EI dimensions does not significantly differ from each other as shown in bootstrap method (with 5,000 bootstrap samples) at 95% confidence intervals.

Figure 1

Mediating role of the three EI dimensions in the relationship between mindfulness and self-compassion

Note. SEA = self-emotional appraisal, ROE = regulation of emotion, UOE = use of emotion; non-standardized coefficients; ^*p < .05; ^**p < .01. a relationship between predictor and mediator, b relationship between mediator and criteria, c total effect, c’ direct effect.

Table 3

Regression coefficients, standard errors, and confidence intervals for the indirect effects (mediators EI dimension: SEA, ROE, UOE)

Note. B = non-standardized beta coefficients; ^*p < .05; ^**p < .01; CI 95% confidence interval: LCI/UCI lower/upper confidence interval.

Discussion

AlthoughThis thestudy importancecontributes andto rolean of creativity and the use of creative teaching methods in the more successful realizationunderstanding of the teachingrelationship process,between asmindfulness, welldimensions asof achievingemotional desiredintelligence learningand outcomes,self-compassion.

As beenexpected, emphasizedthe forresults manyshowed years,that othermindfulness scienceswas positively related to self-compassion, both bivariately and uniquely. These results are increasingly entering the fields of pedagogy and education in a broader sense (informatics, economics, mathematics...) (Dubovicki, 2019; Topolovčan & Dubovicki, 2019; 2024). The education system is increasingly adapting to the needs of the labor market, so in the field of adult education we are reaching for newer and redesigned teaching methods. Some of them are especially used in the field of economics, and are better known as: Design thinking, PAR and SCAMPER method. The mentioned methods are particularly well received by the younger population of adults due to their applicability in a real economic environment. Following a defined teaching structure according to the mentioned methods also empowers them for the open labor market in such a way that by applying structured steps of certain methods, they increase their competitiveness when seeking jobs in the open labor market, as well as in the economic environment. 

Design thinking (DT)

Design thinking (DT) is a technique that is applied in the economic environmentline with theprevious purpose of finding solutions for improved results, and in the educational context, a redesigned application of DT has created a method that encourages the acquisition of new skills and knowledge in a practical and creative wayresearch (PapEgan et al., 2019)2021; Hollis-Walker & Colosimo, 2011; McArthur at al., 2017; Martinez-Rubio et al., 2023; Tran et al., 2022).The teachingAlso methodas basedexpected, results showed that overall EI was positively and moderately related to self-compassion, in line with previous studies (Di Fabio & Saklofske, 2021; Heffernan et al., 2011; Neff, 2003b; Thomas et al., 2024).

This study also revealed the relationship between specific EI dimensions and self-compassion. More precisely, results showed that three of four EI dimensions, i.e., perception and understanding of emotion in self, use of emotion for self-motivating purpose and self-regulation were bivariately and uniquely associated with self-compassion. These EI dimensions essentially represent ways in which a person is able to be compassionate toward self. Neff (2003a) argued that in order to experience self-compassion a person should be able to monitor and clearly apprehend their own emotions, and use that information to rapidly recover from painful experiences by transforming them into self-kindness and self-understanding (Neff, 2003). Therefore, this study’s results extend similar prior research (Şenyuva et al., 2011) which found that self-management and self-motivation are positively related to self-compassion and further suggest the crucial role of these EI dimensions for experiencing self-compassion.

In this study, the EI dimension of perception and understanding of emotion in others was not related to self-compassion. This could be because the applied Wong and Law (2002) OEA scale measures being perceptive and apprehending others’ emotions rather than using that information for influencing or managing others' emotions which is known to be usually positively related to self-compassion (e.g., Di Fabio & Saklofske, 2021). Also, this result is interesting from a developmental perspective since Maynard et al., (2022) study on designan thinkingadolescent sample revealed a small but significant negative correlation (hereinafterr referred= -.20^**) between the ability to asidentify DT)the aroseemotional duestates of others and self-compassion. More specifically, their findings suggest that adolescents who demonstrate a heightened ability to perceive emotions in others, particularly negative emotions, experience lower levels of self-compassion and feelings of self-worth. Self-compassion varies depending on age (Tavers et al., 2024), and it may be that the relationship between self-compassion and OEA and other EI dimensions may also be different depending on age, but this should be further investigated.

The other main finding of the study is that of the partially mediating role of the EI dimensions in the relationship between mindfulness and self-compassion. Results indicated that a higher level of mindfulness leads to a higher perception of emotion in self, higher use of emotions for self-motivation and a higher level of regulation of emotion, which all lead to a higher level of self-compassion. Park and Dhandra (2017) found that the tendency of mindful individuals to be attentive, present-focused, and non-judgmental makes them more capable of understanding and managing emotions well and utilizing these emotions and knowledge to prevent self-critical thoughts. Self-compassion requires that one does not harshly criticize the self in times of difficulty (Neff, 2003a). Also, Bao et al. (2015) obtained that mindful people have a better ability to regulate their emotions and make use of their emotions to motivate themselves, which enables them to perceive less stress. In university students’ higher mindfulness and self-compassion were also related to less perceived stress (Martínez-Rubio et al., 2023). Thus, it seems that mindfulness via the mentioned EI dimensions ensures a more emotionally balanced mindset needed to experience self-compassion rather than over-identification with negative experiences.

The result of partial mediation suggests that there may be also other mechanisms through which mindfulness may increase student’s self-compassion. Also, they point to the evidentdirect inadequacybeneficial effect of mindfulness on self-compassion. Neff (2003a) theorized mindfulness as a necessary precursor to a self-compassionate response since mindfulness enables mental distancing from ongoing difficulties so that feelings of self-kindness and self-understanding can arise. Mental distancing, i.e., decentering reflects a shift in perspective associated with decreased attachment to one’s thoughts and emotions (Biehler & Naragon-Gainey, 2022; Brown et al., 2015). It is further posed that through decentering mindfulness may exert positive psychological outcomes, both directly and indirectly by mobilizing other psychological mechanisms, such as cognitive flexibility, values clarification, self-regulation, and exposure (Brown et al., 2015).

In this study, we theoretically posited that dimensions of EI precede self-compassion. However, it is also possible that at least some of the learningdimensions of EI have a bidirectional and teachingcircular methodsrelationship with self-compassion. For example, a higher level of educationalself-compassion institutionsmay withlead to higher self-regulation, since self-compassion decreases stress (Poots & Cassidy, 2020) and self-regulation is better when a person is not under stress. Thus, it may well be that the realrelationship economicbetween environment,self-regulation whichof hasemotion raisedand concernsself-compassion regardingis employabilitycircular.

Limitations and practical implications

Some limitations of this study should be addressed. First, the cross-sectional nature of the study does not allow us to draw any conclusions about the direction of causality in the associations observed. Further, longitudinal studies are required to reveal the dynamic reciprocal nature of all the study variables. Second, this study focused on EI as a trait. Since EI may be conceptualized also as ability, future studies may focus on such conceptualization of EI.

Per practical implications, since previous studies suggested that mindfulness, EI, and self-compassion can be trained (Charles,Nelis 2022).et Theal., authors2011; emphasize (Martin, 2009; Starkey & Tempest, 2009; GlenSmeets et al., 2014; MatthewsTang &et Wrigley,al., 2017) that the application of DT in the2019), educational contextinstitutions hasmay developedinclude thanksknowledge about these concepts and offer training to the valuable contributions that DT has made in business and management. In an educational context, design reflection encourages students to develop their ideas and experience their own mistakes as part of the learning process (Rupčić, 2022). This process is a set of different methods, which are applied in order to achievefurther theincrease besttheir possible result and there is no standardized model of application of the design thinking method (Waidelich et al., 2018)self-compassion. Design thinking uses divergent thinking as a way to ensure more possible solutions are explored at the initial level, and then convergent thinking to advance and realize the final solution (Pap et al., 2019). Common procedures are based on the processes of reflection, creation and reflection: 1. Compassion – observing the environment and active listening, researching possibilities for improvement, analysis of limitations, identification of the type of problem (eg. personal versus group challenge); 2. Defining – selection and interpretation of important data collected in the sympathy phase, review of the observed problem, transformation from the discovered need into a clear goal; 3. Forming a plan - thinking in order to find a solution to the problem, choosing the best idea, analysis of limitations, clear definition of the idea; 4. Prototype – prototype construction, feedback collection, prototype improvement analysis, assessment of available resources; 5. Evaluation – definition of criteria for success, monitoring of changes in the environment, planning and presentation of prototypes (Rupčić, 2022).

In the context of adult education, the application of the design thinking method encourages students to think and solve problems in a new and unproven way and represents a kind of preparation for navigating a rapidly changing and technologically increasingly complex society (Pap et al., 2019). The mentioned benefits were also detected as a result of encouraging creativity in teaching (Dubovicki, 2013; 2016). The advantages of the DT approach in acquiring knowledge are as follows: 1. understanding the content from a different perspective, 2. studying the problem in detail to determine its root cause, 3. developing innovative thinking and creative problem solving, 4. ensuring that the final outcome meets the goals and requirements, 5. it results in a new experience, which is more efficient and useful for the students than the traditional approach and 6. it enables the continuous expansion of knowledge (Pap et al., 2019).

Conclusions

PARThis methodstudy (Presentshowed –that Apply – Review Method)

The namedimensions of theEI, PARi.e., methodperception isand an acronym consistingunderstanding of theemotion initialin lettersself, use of the Anglosaxon name Present - Apply - Review. The application of the PAR method requires that the participants think about the answers to the given questions, agree on them in pairs and then present the solution (Kunt, 2020). After presenting their work and considering the interpretations of the other pairs, each pair discusses the solution they have chosen, clarifies any misconceptions, and ultimately comes up with the correct answer. In case of disagreement, each member of the couple should argue their solution or opinion. The PAR model is characterized by three phases of learning new teaching content, which is shown in Figure 3.

Figure 3.

Characteristics of the PAR technique

With this method, emphasis is placed on collaborative learning, which requires the participants to analyze the content, solve it together, and thereby indirectly develop the skills of teamwork and assertive communication.

SCAMPER method

Scamper is a technique that emerged from the world of entrepreneurship, but it can be successfully appliedemotion for educational purposes, especially in the education of the younger population of adults. According to authors Korkut & Kopal (2018), each letter of the SCAMPER method is an acronym (Figure 4) that represents separate questions that must be considered in order to achieve the desired result.  It implies group work and encourages creativity in groups of participants in terms of finding solutions to certain problems. It suggests teamwork and fosters innovation among participants in terms of resolving certain issues. It is used in accordance with a set of guidelines, asking questions regarding the subject matter at all times, and adhering to all seven letters of the acronym that makes up the method's name. 

Figure 4.

The meaning of the acronym SCAMPER

In Figure 4, we can see the acronym consisting of the letters SCAMPER. Below is an explanation of the mentioned terms:

• S - substitute - thinking about what needs to be changed.

• C - combine - different knowledge is connected and integrated, i.e. old ideas from which new ones should be created.

• A - adapt - means adding new elements, adapting to the current situation.

• M - modify - encourages a change of perspective. Contemplating about what should be changed and what should be kept.

• P - put to the use (change ofself-motivating purpose or purpose of use) - encourages adaptation to new challenges, new knowledge, enabling new functionality.

• E - eliminate - represents simplification and facilitation, as well as contemplation about what could be eliminated to make what we want to keep maximally useful. 

• R - reverse/ rearrange - stands for reconstruction, and in this step the most acceptable ideas are chosen.

By asking numerous questions that are guided by the initial letters of the names of the techniques, creativity and creative thinking are encouraged. Creativity significantly depends on the context. Individuals have it as a natural gift, but for many, creativity is very underdeveloped.  Using the SCAMPER method, it is possible to develop and improve ideas that can help us solve problems. Answering the questions encourages a creative approach to the problem and the adoption of new content. The creativity of the participants plays a decisive role in the effectiveness of the application of this method. By applying a constructivist teaching strategy, the SCAMPER method in an educational context aims to help students develop metacognition, critical thinking and problem-solving skills (Solomon, 2003). By applying the SCAMPER method, an attempt is made to transform current knowledge and create a new perspective. Although creativity plays a decisive role in this technique, it is important to try to implement it regardless of the participant’s personality. Such a way of working emphasizes a strong orientation to the process of education, instead of exclusively to its result. The emphasis is on the method of acquiring new knowledge, not on the content itself. It is important to point out that the process of acquiring knowledge is not opposed to the result, but both are equally taken into account, not even as separate entities, but as a dialectical unity. In this sense, improvisation helps to put emphasis on methodology in the educational process instead of exclusively on content (Nikolić, 2019).

Active learning in the context of adult education

The concept of active learning is not at all a new pedagogical or didactic concept. The same is indirectly mentioned in the history of pedagogy during the period of school development - pedagogical school directions (Munjiza, 2009; Turk, 2009). Despite the many definitions of active learning, we can say that active learning represents learning in which a high degree of independence and self-regulation, is achieved, various thinking strategies and specific cognitive skills are applied that enable essential learning, analysis and comparison of information, their connection with existing knowledge and critical judgment their meanings; learning that enables long-term memory (Turk, 2009; Dubovicki, 2016). The discourse on lifelong learning emphasizes, among other things,mediated the importance of the active involvement of the individual and the need to take responsibility for his own learning and the end result. This is especially emphasized in the adult education, because active learning includes different perspectives of the participants. It is based on the constructivist theory of learning, where participants, with the support of an andragogist, research and develop knowledge on their own. Contemporary adult education involves an active and partnership-based relationship between participantsmindfulness and theself-compassion, andragogist leading the teaching process, using creative andragogical methodsi.e., that includehigher research-based,mindfulness meaningful,led andto problem-basedhigher teaching.emotional

Active involvementwhich in theturn learning process is one of the key factors in increasing the attention of participants in the teaching process. Teaching focused on the teaching process or teaching focused on the participants in the teaching process is an approachlead to teaching that emphasizes planning based on activities and experience rather than on knowledge that is acquired and facts that need to be memorized. Such learning is based on individual discovery, immediate experience, and creative work (Nikčević-Milković, 2004). An active approach to learning provides participants with more frequent feedback on their progress, takes into account different learning styles, allows them to discuss the content they are learning, and encourages the development of collaborative, communication, negotiation, and other "soft" skills.  It also increases students'higher self-confidencecompassion. throughThese conversationfindings with other students, but also through increased interaction between the teacher and participants in the teaching process. In the active approach to adult learning, the andragogue,serve as the leaderbasis offor thedirecting educationalgreater process, provides direct feedback on the level of acquisition, understanding, or misunderstanding, as well as on the misconceptions that need to be corrected. 

Contemporary social demands also require a new type of knowledge, skills, abilities, values and attitudes, i.e. new competencies that promote innovation, creativity, ability to solve problems, critical thinking, entrepreneurship, information literacy, etc. (Peko & Varga, 2014). Active learning methods encourage the development of 21st century skills and are necessary to overcome the challenges of an unpredictable future (Stephen et al., 2010; Gazibara, 2013; Peko & Varga, 2014).

Turk (2009) investigates how active learning of students in university classes affects the development of creativity of future teachers and emphasizes active learning techniques, which he divides into three groups:

1. techniques that require shorter preparation and fewer resources – these include: the technique of teaching by questioning and brainstorming 

2. techniques that require shorter written preparation and materials - these include: collaborative learning and the technique of mutual explanation

3. techniques that require longer written preparation and materials – these include: case study, peer learning, discussion, problem-based learning, and independent learning technique 

The mentioned active learning techniques can be applied in various contexts, certainly in lifelong education and adult education. Knowing oneself, one's own goals, priorities, potential, relationship with time and process, insight into one's position in a group, team, collective, and contact with one's own thoughts and feelings become something that emerges beyond the usual frameworks of learning and teaching by the leaderattention of the educational process (Urbancinto &the Kletečki Radović, 2007). The applicationdevelopment of modern,mindfulness creativeand methodsEI, especially dimensions of perception and understanding of emotion in theself, educationaluse context,of byemotion respectingfor self-motivating purpose and self-regulation, in order to promote students‘ self-compassion and, consequently, their readiness for the personal experiences and knowledgedemands of the individual,profession. lays the foundations for collaborative and experiential learning, which is the basis of active learning. Active participation of students in the teaching process (asking questions, research, solving problems, etc.) leads to their personal construction of knowledge. Therefore, the time spent on achieving the goal is as valuable as the knowledge gained at the end (Peko & Varga, 2014). This is especially important to apply in adults education, because it contributes to individualizing teaching process in which they are involved, and the teaching is more dynamic and purposeful for adults, which includes practical learning, encourages divergent and convergent learning and learning through discovery.

According to the conclusionReferences

WhenBaer, organizingR. classesA., for adults, the use of various methods and techniques enables better insights into one's own interests, goals and priorities, i.e. the expression of the potential of the students, but also the general exploration of personal identity. When organizing classes for adults, the use of various methods and techniques allows for better insights into one's own interests, goals, and priorities, as well as the expression of the potential of the learners and, more generally, the exploration of personal identity. Andragogues believe that the use of various methods and techniques requires greater engagement in the design of activities, and more complex competencies in divergent thinking and creativity are needed. However, such an approach leads to greater involvement of participants in the educational process, positively impacting the quantity, quality, and durability of overall knowledge. Such an approach helps participants develop creative thinking, better understanding, and improved memory by connecting ideas, words, and concepts. 

It is also necessary to develop knowledge and insights about the appropriate approach to teaching adults and the andragogical profession in general, as well as insights into the appropriate competencies, skills, and knowledge that andragogical workers should possess. Andragogy as a science is underdeveloped and relies on pedagogy, and as a result, methodological and didactic procedures are often improvised to suit the adult population of learners.  This is precisely why this paper presents methods that were developed on the basis of economic sciences and are applied in a real economic environment. Applying proven steps and procedures of the mentioned methods in an educational context has proven to be an effective way of teaching adults. Particularly significant are the media that provide additional benefits for the participants themselves, but which need to be properly dosed so that the humanizing role that the educational system as a whole nurtures is not lost. The intention is not to diminish the value and importance of existing teaching methods, but to open new challenges through interdisciplinarity and multimedia, which significantly meet the needs of today's learners and continuously present new challenges for the andragogue.
      Given the increasing human lifespan, we can expect a rising trend in adult participation in educational programs in the future, and thus the significance of andragogy as a science will continue to grow, making it an important area to research and develop. 

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